Bad air, amulets and mosquitoes: 2,000 years of changing perspectives on malaria

Abstract

For many centuries, scientists have debated the cause and best treatment of the disease now known as malaria. Two theories regarding malaria transmission – that of “bad air” and that of insect vectors – have been widely accepted at different times throughout history. Treatments and cures have varied accordingly over time. This paper traces the evolution of scientific consensus on malaria aetiology, transmission, and treatment from ancient times to the present day.

Ecosystem Services and Disservices of Mangrove Forests: Insights from Historical Colonial Observations

“…This result confirmed previous anecdotal evidence that historically mangrove forests were considered with ambivalence or as a nuisance [20]. The majority of ecosystem disservices discussed in these reports (59%) referred to the role of mangroves as a reservoir of disease; since these reports were written before the advent of germ theory in medicine, the main vector of disease was thought to be "miasma", poisonous vapors emitted from decaying matter [21]. Of the ecosystem disservices reported, 28% referred to the general view of mangrove forests as gloomy (or other similar words), suggesting a negative cultural and aesthetic response to the mangrove environment [17].…”

“…For centuries, diseases such as malaria (its etymology derived from the Italian for bad air) were thought to be caused by vapors emitted from the decaying of organic matter, or miasma [21]. The miasma theory for malaria or 'marsh fever' transmission dominated for approximately 2000 years until the late 19th century, when in 1851 the link between malaria and marshes was first refuted in the medical literature by the American physician Charles E Johnson, with evidence for mosquito-borne transmission provided in 1883 -21].…”

Artemisinin—A Gift from Traditional Chinese Medicine to the World (Nobel Lecture)

“…[1] Adetailed description of malaria symptoms can also be found in Huangdi Neijing,I nner Casnon of the YellowE mperor, written between the Chun Qiu and Qin Dynasties,7 70-207 B.C. [3] It was not known that the disease was caused by parasites until aF rench scientist, Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, discovered the single-celled Plasmodium parasite in blood smears from malaria patients in 1880. [2] Since malaria commonly originated and spread in the humid areas surrounding marshes and swamps,t he disease was considered to be associated with the "bad air" hovering around the region, which is how the word "malaria"ac ombination of medieval italian "mal" (bad) and "aria" (air)-was derived.…”

“…[2] Since malaria commonly originated and spread in the humid areas surrounding marshes and swamps,t he disease was considered to be associated with the "bad air" hovering around the region, which is how the word "malaria"ac ombination of medieval italian "mal" (bad) and "aria" (air)-was derived. [3] It was not known that the disease was caused by parasites until aF rench scientist, Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran, discovered the single-celled Plasmodium parasite in blood smears from malaria patients in 1880. [4] In 1897, Ronald Ross, aBritish military doctor,found Plasmodium "eggs" (oocysts), in the guts of female mosquitos and later verified that Anopheles mosquitos were responsible for the transmission of malaria parasites between subjects.…”

Editorial: Preventive Vaccination

“…8 In low-income countries, nearly 40% of deaths are among children under 15 years and only 20% among people aged 70 years and older. People predominantly die of infectious diseases: lower respiratory infections, HIV/AIDS, diarrheal diseases, malaria and tuberculosis collectively account for almost one third of all deaths in these countries 6 .…”