Bacterial Contamination of Paper Currency

Pope, Theodore W. Capt; Ender, Peter T.; Woelk, William K.; Koroscil, Michael A.; Koroscil, Thomas M. Col

doi:10.1097/00007611-200212000-00011

Cited by 55 publications

(59 citation statements)

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“…The isolation of both bacteria and fungi from currency as demonstrated by our study shows that currency could play an important role in the transmission of microbial agents in the community and thus presents a public health threat. Contamination of currency in our study is higher than reported in currencies in other developing countries like Nigeria, 52.5% [15], Nepal, 75% [26] and Saudi Arabia 72.3% [27] but comparable to the 94% reported in the United States [12] and lower than 100% recently reported in Ghana [20] and Pakistan [28]. These differences reflect differences in hygienic practices and handling of currency in different areas and also show that microbial contamination of currency is a global problem.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 64%

Public health implications of contamination of Franc CFA (XAF) circulating in Buea (Cameroon) with drug resistant pathogens

et al. 2014

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BackgroundStudies in different parts of the world have implicated money as a vehicle for transmission of pathogens. Such information which is necessary to facilitate infection control strategies is lacking in many sub-Saharan countries including Cameroon. This study analyzed the Franc de la Communauté Financiere d’Afrique (Franc CFA), the currency used in Cameroon and other countries in the Central African sub-region, as a potential vehicle for transmission of pathogenic bacteria and fungi, particularly drug-resistant strains, to generate findings which could create awareness on currency contamination and serve as a guide when formulating health policies on currency.MethodsTwo hundred and thirteen currency samples representing various denominations of notes and coins randomly collected from diverse sources in Buea, Cameroon were analyzed for bacteria and fungi. The sensitivity of bacterial isolates to antibiotics was tested using the disc diffusion method. The relationship between contamination and physical state, source or denomination of currency was assessed using the χ2 test. All statistics were discussed at 0.05 significance level.ResultsTwo hundred (93.9%) samples were contaminated with notes (96.6%) showing higher contamination than coins (88.2%). Uncirculated (mint) samples showed no contamination. There was a significant difference (P˂0.05) in contamination with respect to currency denomination, physical state and source. All samples from butchers and patients/personnel in hospitals were contaminated. Lower denominations showed significantly higher (P = 0.008) levels of contamination than higher denominations. Dirty currency was more contaminated than clean currency. Nine bacterial species were isolated. Coagulase-negative Staphylococcus (CoNS) (54.9%) and Staphylococcus aureus (20.1%) predominated. Among the fungi detected, Aspergillus sp (17.3%) and Penicillium sp (15.9%) showed higher frequency of occurrence. Bacteria were susceptible (100%) to ceftriaxone, gentamicin, norfloxacin and ofloxacin. Susceptibility to amoxicillin, penicillin, ampicillin, vancomycin and cotrimoxazole was low. Staphylococci were resistant (100%) to vancomycin, penicillin G, and amoxicillin. CoNS in addition showed resistance (100%) to cotrimoxazole.ConclusionsThe CFA franc circulating in Buea could serve as a vehicle for transmission of drug resistant pathogenic or potential organisms and contamination could be due to currency usage and handling as mint notes were not contaminated. Hygiene practices during or after handling currency is greatly encouraged to prevent infection.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 64%

Public health implications of contamination of Franc CFA (XAF) circulating in Buea (Cameroon) with drug resistant pathogens

et al. 2014

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“…Coated paper which is often used for printing currency allows easy transmission of bacteria between hands and paper (Contrada, ). In a study carried out with one‐dollar bills, it was found that pathogenic or potentially pathogenic organisms could be isolated from 94% of the bills (Pope et al ., ). Methicillin‐resistant S. aureus (MRSA) could also be isolated from coins collected from college students in Malaysia (Amini et al ., ), but epidemic nosocomial and community‐acquired MRSA seems to require organic protection to survive on dry metal coins (Tolba et al ., ).…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 97%

Bacterial diversity assessed by cultivation-based techniques shows predominance ofStaphylococccusspecies on coins collected in Lisbon and Casablanca

Carvalho

Caramujo

2013

FEMS Microbiol Ecol

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Money is usually considered a source of infections, yet survival of bacteria on dry metal surfaces is limited. The aim of this work was to assess the bacterial numbers and diversity on coins collected in Casablanca and Lisbon as these two cities, on different continents and only 585 km apart, have diverse cultural habitats, but have similar climate. A cultivation-based characterisation of the bacterial community showed that a relatively low number of cells per area of coin were found on both Moroccan Dirhams and Euros (0.014 and 0.125 colony-forming units (CFU) mm(-2) , respectively). Most of the bacterial isolates were located near the rim of the coins, and coins collected in Europe contained more CFU/area of coin. Coins collected in Europe and transported in pockets presented a higher number of bacterial isolates (maximum 0.125 CFU mm(-2) ) than coins transported in wallets (maximum 0.042 CFU mm(-2) ), regardless of the gender of the person transporting them, suggesting that temperature and moisture might be key parameters for bacterial survival on metallic coins. Bacterial diversity was higher for coins collected in Casablanca relative to coins collected in Lisbon, and there was no evidence that it was dependent on the gender of the person transporting the coins or the place of transport (pockets or wallets). Curiously, the percentage of Staphylococcus strains was 44% of the total isolates on both currencies.

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“…These studies sampled money of various denominations and composition, from the USA [18, 38], Nepal [39] and Egypt [40], and identified 20 different bacterial taxa, some of which are known to cause human infections (Table 1). Eighteen of the 20 bacteria taxa cultured in these studies were also found in our study, representing between 11–72% of the total bacterial reads for each time point.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Filthy lucre: A metagenomic pilot study of microbes found on circulating currency in New York City

et al. 2017

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BackgroundPaper currency by its very nature is frequently transferred from one person to another and represents an important medium for human contact with—and potential exchange of—microbes. In this pilot study, we swabbed circulating $1 bills obtained from a New York City bank in February (Winter) and June (Summer) 2013 and used shotgun metagenomic sequencing to profile the communities found on their surface. Using basic culture conditions, we also tested whether viable microbes could be recovered from bills.ResultsShotgun metagenomics identified eukaryotes as the most abundant sequences on money, followed by bacteria, viruses and archaea. Eukaryotic assemblages were dominated by human, other metazoan and fungal taxa. The currency investigated harbored a diverse microbial population that was dominated by human skin and oral commensals, including Propionibacterium acnes, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Micrococcus luteus. Other taxa detected not associated with humans included Lactococcus lactis and Streptococcus thermophilus, microbes typically associated with dairy production and fermentation. Culturing results indicated that viable microbes can be isolated from paper currency.ConclusionsWe conducted the first metagenomic characterization of the surface of paper money in the United States, establishing a baseline for microbes found on $1 bills circulating in New York City. Our results suggest that money amalgamates DNA from sources inhabiting the human microbiome, food, and other environmental inputs, some of which can be recovered as viable organisms. These monetary communities may be maintained through contact with human skin, and DNA obtained from money may provide a record of human behavior and health. Understanding these microbial profiles is especially relevant to public health as money could potentially mediate interpersonal transfer of microbes.

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Bacterial Contamination of Paper Currency

Cited by 55 publications

References 0 publications

Public health implications of contamination of Franc CFA (XAF) circulating in Buea (Cameroon) with drug resistant pathogens

Public health implications of contamination of Franc CFA (XAF) circulating in Buea (Cameroon) with drug resistant pathogens

Bacterial diversity assessed by cultivation-based techniques shows predominance ofStaphylococccusspecies on coins collected in Lisbon and Casablanca

Filthy lucre: A metagenomic pilot study of microbes found on circulating currency in New York City

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