Bacterial Cellulose-Based Materials: A Perspective on Cardiovascular Tissue Engineering Applications

Abstract

Today, a wide variety of bio- and nanomaterials have been deployed for cardiovascular tissue engineering (TE), including polymers, metal oxides, graphene/its derivatives, organometallic complexes/composites based on inorganic–organic components, among others. Despite several advantages of these materials with unique mechanical, biological, and electrical properties, some challenges still remain pertaining to their biocompatibility, cytocompatibility, and possible risk factors (e.g., teratogenicity or carcinogenicity), restricting their future clinical applications. Natural polysaccharide- and protein-based (nano)structures with the benefits of biocompatibility, sustainability, biodegradability, and versatility have been exploited in the field of cardiovascular TE focusing on targeted drug delivery, vascular grafts, engineered cardiac muscle, etc. The usage of these natural biomaterials and their residues offers several advantages in terms of environmental aspects such as alleviating emission of greenhouse gases as well as the production of energy as a biomass consumption output. In TE, the development of biodegradable and biocompatible scaffolds with potentially three-dimensional structures, high porosity, and suitable cellular attachment/adhesion still needs to be comprehensively studied. In this context, bacterial cellulose (BC) with high purity, porosity, crystallinity, unique mechanical properties, biocompatibility, high water retention, and excellent elasticity can be considered as promising candidate for cardiovascular TE. However, several challenges/limitations regarding the absence of antimicrobial factors and degradability along with the low yield of production and extensive cultivation times (in large-scale production) still need to be resolved using suitable hybridization/modification strategies and optimization of conditions. The biocompatibility and bioactivity of BC-based materials along with their thermal, mechanical, and chemical stability are crucial aspects in designing TE scaffolds. Herein, cardiovascular TE applications of BC-based materials are deliberated, with a focus on the most recent advancements, important challenges, and future perspectives. Other biomaterials with cardiovascular TE applications and important roles of green nanotechnology in this field of science are covered to better compare and comprehensively review the subject. The application of BC-based materials and the collective roles of such biomaterials in the assembly of sustainable and natural-based scaffolds for cardiovascular TE are discussed.

Advances in drug delivery applications of modified bacterial cellulose-based materials

“…Subsequently, these fibrils aggregate side-by-side to form 30-80-nmwide mature cellulose nanofiber, which is stabilized by intra-and intermolecular hydrogen bonds. According to the different fermentation processes, BC can be obtained in various structures such as aster-like/sphere-like hydrogels produced under agitated/ shaking culture conditions and thin-film hydrogels synthesized under static culture conditions (Wang et al, 2019;Fooladi et al, 2023). Consequently, BC has been considered a versatile candidate for drug delivery systems owing to its unique structure and properties.…”

Green Electrospun Nanofibers for Biomedicine and Biotechnology

“…Another important characteristic is tunable strength degradation properties over time. Finally, the ability to support cell infiltration and remodeling capacity is crucial [73][74][75][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84][85].…”

Facile preparation of Bacterial cellulose‐SiO2 composite aerogel with good mechanical strength and thermal stability

“…[21] Composites prepared by compounding BC into other matrices can be used in industries such as healthcare, textiles, and packaging. [22,23] In silica aerogels, the ultrafine nanofiber mesh matrix and crosslinking active sites of BC can further improve the mechanical properties of silica aerogels. [24] Existing studies mainly used the deposition of silica sol into bacterial cellulose aerogels to prepare composite aerogels and improve the compression properties of the composite aerogels.…”

“…The numerous hydroxyl groups on the surface of BC allow it to be functionalized and used as a soft/hard template for the development of polymer composites [21] . Composites prepared by compounding BC into other matrices can be used in industries such as healthcare, textiles, and packaging [22,23] …”