Backed tools in Middle Pleistocene central Africa and their evolutionary significance

Dating the colonization of Sahul (Pleistocene Australia–New Guinea): a review of recent research

“…As many have observed (and as its proponents [53] themselves concede), Modes 3 and 4 work best as descriptive devices in western Europe; elsewhere they display much less integrity [9,12,89]. Moreover, the order in which these and other modes appear is not unidirectional.…”

Levallois Lithic Technology from the Kapthurin Formation, Kenya: Acheulian Origin and Middle Stone Age Diversity

“…Direct evidence for hafting is presently lacking from African sites older than ∼ 100 ka (but see Donahue et al, 2002Donahue et al, -2004Lombard et al, 2004;Yellen, 1998). Basal thinning on points and the presence of backed pieces, however, argues for composite tools in Africa as early as ∼ 200 ka (Barham, 2001(Barham, , 2002Wendorf and Schild, 1993). We identify four primary differences between Acheulian and MSA Levallois technology in the Kapthurin Formation.…”

Middle Stone Age Technology and Cultural Evolution at Magubike Rockshelter, Southern Tanzania

“…For the purpose of calculating frequencies and proportions all collected pieces were tabulated. As at other MSA sites, very few trimmed pieces were recovered from the Magubike site (5.3%, n = 797) (Barham 2002;Schoville 2010). Those flakes that were retouched were generally lightly transformed into an assortment of scrapers, points and backed pieces.…”

“…9, 10; Table 4). Unlike backed tools from later periods that are typically produced from blades and bladelets, most of the backed segments from the Magubike site appear to have been opportunistically created from large conveniently shaped flakes (Barham 2002). The backed pieces from Magubike also declined in size during the MSA, showing continuity with smaller backed tools found in the subsequent LSA and Iron Age.…”

“…This speciation event occurred amidst a mosaic backdrop of significant behavioural change, which may have begun as early as~500,000 years ago and became consolidated in the Later Stone Age (LSA) (Burdukiewicz 2014;Henshilwood 2007;McBrearty 2013;McBrearty and Brooks 2000;Shea 2011;Wilkins et al 2015). During this time humans began to create sophisticated tools from both lithic and perishable materials such as wood and bone (Barham 2002;Leplongeon 2014;Yellen et al 1995), to engage in long-distance exchange (Barut 1994;Mehlman 1989), to exploit a variety of ecosystems including marine coastlines (Arzarello et al 2013;Barham 2002;Broadhurst et al 2002;Drake et al 2011;Jerardino and Marean 2010;Marean 2011;Marean et al 2007;Walter et al 2000), and to produce art and personal adornment (Bar-Yosef Mayer et al 2009;D'Errico et al 2005;Henshilwood et al 2002Henshilwood et al , 2004Henshilwood et al , 2009Hovers et al 1997;Mackay and Welz 2008;Miller and Willoughby 2014;Willoughby 2007).…”