Back to basics: A naturalistic assessment of the experience and regulation of emotion.

Abstract

Emotion regulation research links regulatory responding to important outcomes in psychological well-being, physical health, and interpersonal relations, but several fundamental questions remain. As much of the previous research has addressed generalized regulatory habits, far less is known about the ways in which individuals respond to emotions in daily life. The literature is particularly sparse in explorations of positive emotion regulation. In the current study, we provide an assessment of naturalistic experiences and regulation of emotion, both positive and negative in valence. Using an electronic experience sampling methodology, participants reported on their use of 40 regulatory strategies in response to 14 emotions for 10 consecutive days. On average, participants used 15 different regulatory strategies in response to negative emotions over this time, most frequently relying on acceptance, behavioral activation, and rumination. Participants used a similarly large repertoire of strategies, approximately 16 total, in response to positive emotions, particularly savoring, future focus, and behavioral activation. Participants' mood ratings following strategy use, however, indicated that the most frequently used strategies were often not the most effective strategies. The results of this study provide estimates of the frequency and effectiveness of a large number of emotion regulation strategies in response to both negative and positive emotions. Such findings characterize naturalistic emotion regulation, and estimates of normative emotion regulation processes are imperative to determining the ways in which deviations (e.g., small emotion regulation repertoires, insufficient attention to regulation of positive emotions) impact emotional functioning.

Emotion regulation in context: Examining the spontaneous use of strategies across emotional intensity and type of emotion

“…Another possible reason for the discrepancy between past research and current findings was the absence of a forced choice in the present study. Recent work finds that, when possible, participants report using multiple ER strategies in response to brief stressors (e.g., Aldao & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2013;Heiy & Cheavens, 2014). Our findings mirror recent research indicating low endorsement of reappraisal even at low emotional intensities (Suri, Whittaker, & Gross, 2014), presumably due to hidden costs (such as the high level of required effort) associated with this strategy.…”

Flexible, Yet Firm: A Model of Healthy Emotion Regulation

“…coded each response as one of 30 categories, based primarily on a previous study of a wide range of emotion regulation strategies (i.e., Heiy & Cheavens, 2014; Table 2). Ten categories not assessed by Heiy and Cheavens (2014) were generated by the study authors before coding but after reviewing a subset of participant responses to ensure adequate conceptual coverage (i.e., express emotions, information gathering, isolation, leave the situation, nothing - wait to feel better, prayer, reflection, relationship antagonism, relationship maintenance/repair, and therapy/counseling). Raters coded each participant’s set of five responses in order, but sets were randomized by participant and vignette.…”

“…Larger emotion regulation repertoires have been associated with fewer symptoms of depression (Herman-Stahl, Stemmler, & Petersen, 1995), as well as lower momentary negative affect and greater momentary positive affect (Heiy & Cheavens, 2014). …”

“…There are often many options for changing emotions (e.g., Heiy & Cheavens, 2014). Thus, switching strategies when given feedback that the current strategy is not working may be more adaptive.…”

Neurocognitive bases of emotion regulation development in adolescence

“…However, some researchers have argued that focusing on specific strategies may be problematic for understanding the everyday use of a broad range of explicit emotion regulation strategies (Aldao & Nolan-Hoeksema, 2013). One recent experience sampling study (Heiy & Cheavens, 2014) identified approximately 40 strategies that adult participants (aged 18-31) reported using over the course of the study for the regulation of both Page 24 of 49 A c c e p t e d M a n u s c r i p t 24 negative and positive states (summarised in Table 2). Indeed it is often necessary to regulate positive as well as negative states, e.g.…”