Bacillus anthracis on Gruinard Island

Manchee, R. J.; Broster, M. G.; Melling, J.; Henstridge, R. M.; Stagg, Anthony J.

doi:10.1038/294254a0

Cited by 94 publications

(66 citation statements)

References 3 publications

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“…No letter with spores was found in the home of the 94-year-old woman, but the fact that she received no mail that passed through the New Jersey station within the Ͻ1-min period is consistent with the hypothesis that she was infected by a second generation cross-contaminated letter. The entries of the cross-contamination matrices reflect this information, with C [3] corresponding to more vigorous processing at regional postal centers, and C [1], C [2], and C [4] corresponding to less handling in local centers.…”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 1 more Smart Citation

Mailborne transmission of anthrax: Modeling and implications

Webb

Blaser

2002

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

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A mathematical model is developed to analyze the transmission of inhalational anthrax through the postal system by cross-contamination of mail. The model consists of state vectors describing the numbers of cross-contaminated letters generated, the numbers of anthrax spores on these letters, the numbers of resulting infections in recipients, and matrices of transition probabilities acting on these vectors. The model simulates the recent outbreak in the United States, and provides a general framework to investigate the potential impact of possible future outbreaks.A nthrax has been a scourge of humans and domesticated animals since ancient times, and its causative agent, Bacillus anthracis, has long been considered a weapon of biological warfare or terrorism (1, 2). Spores of B. anthracis can survive indefinitely in a wide range of environments (3), and a relatively modest dose delivered to mammalian skin or lungs can result in cutaneous or inhalational anthrax, respectively (4-7). Gastrointestinal anthrax also occurs in certain regions of the world (8), although inhalational anthrax is the most lethal form (9).Since October 2001, both inhalational and cutaneous cases of anthrax have been recognized in the United States (10, 11), after a hiatus of more than 20 years (12). Of the 22 cases reported to date (December 15, 2001), 11 have been cutaneous and 11 have been inhalational; 5 persons with inhalational anthrax have died, with a case fatality rate of 45%. All cases of inhalational anthrax have occurred in persons above 43 years of age (median 56 years, range 43 to 94; refs. 11 and 13). After a 1979 accident at a Soviet factory producing anthrax spores in Sverdlovsk, a city of 1.2 million people, 79 persons were reported to have developed inhalational anthrax, and 68 of these died (1). All of the cases were clustered in a single quadrant of the city and its outskirts, corresponding to the area downwind of the plume released from the factory. Despite the large number of persons of all ages potentially exposed to this plume, no cases were reported in persons Ͻ24 years old (1). Both the Russian accident (1) and the current U.S. cases (11, 13) suggest that older persons have increased risk for contracting inhalational anthrax after environmental exposure.Most of the current U.S. cases have been traced to letters heavily contaminated with anthrax spores that were sent through the U.S. mail (14). All strains recovered from mail and from clinical specimens reportedly have the same molecular fingerprint (14), indicating their dissemination from a single source. These mail-related cases have occurred among the intended recipients of the letters or others in their work environment (n ϭ 7), or among postal workers (n ϭ 11). In addition, there have been four other cases, two cutaneous, and two inhalational (both fatal) in elderly women, in which the victims appear unrelated to either the intended recipients or the postal milieu (11).We propose that these ''unrelated'' cases occurred as a result of their receiving mail that h...

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Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Spores of B. anthracis can survive indefinitely in a wide range of environments (3), and a relatively modest dose delivered to mammalian skin or lungs can result in cutaneous or inhalational anthrax, respectively (4-7). Gastrointestinal anthrax also occurs in certain regions of the world (8), although inhalational anthrax is the most lethal form (9).…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Mailborne transmission of anthrax: Modeling and implications

Webb

Blaser

2002

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

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“…The experiments conducted in 1942 by the British army on the Island of Gruinard, off the Scotland coast, where anthrax bombs were tested, were considered as dirty [40].…”

Section: Bio-weapons Their Status Post World War I (Ww I)mentioning

confidence: 99%

An Overview on Biological Weapons and Bioterrorism

Tsegaye¹,

Girzaw²,

Bedada³

et al. 2017

AJBR

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“…Insects have been implicated in the spread of anthrax outbreaks, including both transmissions of a disease by biting or carrion flies spreading the spores onto vegetation which is then consumed by browsing animals [3,6,7]. Spores can persist in the soil under extreme weather and environmental conditions for an extended period [8].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%