“…Many studies have aimed to ascertain automaticity of frequency and spatial encoding (Hasher & Zachs, 1979, 1984Hasher, Zachs, Rose, & Sanft, 1987), but there is no general agreement in the literature. The judgment of automaticity has been questioned both for frequency of occurrence (Goldstein & Levin, 1988;Maki & Ostby, 1987;Naveh-Benjamin & Jonides, 1985, 1986 and for spatial location (Naveh-Benjamin, 1987). However, for an operational point of view, at least these processes can be considered as more "automatic" than others and used in a paradigm of automatic processes.…”