“…For online learning, most LMSs can track student attendance and participation, especially on obvious items like files downloaded, forum posts read and made, and various manual or automatic alerts can be created so that corrective action can be taken. Some systems already use various simple AI models for predicting at-risk students by combining grades, participation and other activities, something that is made far more possible because of students’ digital presence ( Hershkovitz et al , 2013 ; Babić, 2017 ; Hoffait and Schyns, 2017 ; Hussain et al , 2018 ; Toivonen, Jormanainen and Tukiainen, 2019 ; Bernacki, Chaves and Uesbeck, 2020 ). These are currently reasonably intuitive, although they, and other measures (e.g.…”