Attitude modification and anxiety reduction.

Fifteen years of fear arousal: Research on threat appeals: 1953-1968.

“…Dabbs and Leventhal (1966) found that manipulations of the effectiveness of the recommendations did not have any significant effect either on intentions to take action or on action taken (obtaining an inoculation for tetanus). Similarly, Moltz and Thistlethwaite (1955) found that although explicit assurance as to the efficacy of the recommended procedures was effective in producing anxiety reduction, the anxiety reduction was not associated with greater reported conformity to the recommendations. Thus, although one study (Chu, 1966) did find a slight tendency (p < .07, n = 1024) for subjects to minimize the threat when the recommended solution was not seen as efficacious, research has not sufficiently indicated that perceived efficacy of the recommendations offered in a threat appeal significantly interacts with fear level in affecting persuasion.…”

“…Thus, several studies have measured fear as the sum of a series of reported reactions such as fear, anxiety, nausea, depression, panic, anger, tension, disgust, nervousness, and discomfort (see Leventhal & Singer, 1966;Leventhal & Trembly, 1968;Leventhal & Watts, 1966;Leventhal et al, 1967). Some studies have considered fear primarily as the subjects' reports of anxiety (see Goldstein, 1959;Miller & Hewgill, 1966;Moltz & Thistlethwaite, 1955;Powell & Miller, 1967). Other studies have defined fear arousal primarily in terms of the subjects' reported worry or concern (see Chu, 1966;Hewgill & Miller, 1965;Janis & Feshbach, 1953Powell, 1965).…”

“…This same consideration may be a reason for the importance of differences in subjects. Subjects of wide age and education-level Berkowitz & Cottingham (1960), Cohen (1957), Dabbs & Leventhal (1966), Duke (1967), Frandsen (1963), Gollob & Dittes (1965), Leventhal & Niles (1965), Leventhal & Perloe (1962), , Leventhal et al (1967), Millman (1968), Robbins (1962aRobbins ( , 1962b, Stern et al (1965) Hewgill & Miller (1965, Janis & Milholland (1954), Janis & Terwilliger (1962), Kraus et al (1966), , Powell (1965), Powell & Miller (1967) Leventhal & Niles (1964, Leventhal & Singer (1966), Leventhal & Watts (1966), Nunnally & Bobren (1959) Fischer et al (1967, Goldstein (1959), Insko et al (1965), Janis & Feshbach (1953), Janis & Feshbach (1954), Leventhal & Trembly (1968) Moltz & Thistlethwaite (1955 DeWolfe & Governdale (1964( ) Chu (1966 ranges may differ in their knowledge concerning any given topic (although it was found above they do not seem to differ in their perceived familiarity with the topics). For example, Cannel and MacDonald (1956) found that education level interacts with smoking habits in the perception of the relationship between smoking and lung cancer.…”

“…A final possible source of inconsistency in the threat-appeal findings lies in the criterion of persuasive effectiveness of a threat appeal. This may be an important practical consideration because, for example, in most applied settings a communication which changes only Dabbs & Leventhal (1966), Fischer et al (1967), Gollob & Dittes (196S), Janis & Milholland (1954), Janis & Terwilliger (1962), , Leventhal & Perloe (1962), , Nunnally & Bobren (1959) Hewgill & Miller (1965, Millman (1968), Powell (1965), Powell & Miller (1967), Robbins (1962a, 1962b) Berkowitz & Cottingham (1960, Duke (1967), Goldstein (1959), Insko et al (1965), Janis & Feshbach (1953), Janis & Feshbach (1954), Leventhal & Singer (1966), Moltz & Thistlethwaite (1955) Leventhal & Niles (1964, Leventhal & Niles (1965), Leventhal & Trembly (1968), Leventhal & Watts (1966), Leventhal et al (1967) Chu (1966, Cohen (1957), Stern et al (1965) Berkowitz & Cottingham (I960), Cohen (1957), DeWolfe & Governdale (1964, Frandsen (1963), Gollob & Dittes (1965), Hewgill & Miller (1965, Janis & Terwilliger (1962), Leventhal & Perloe (1962), Millman (1968), …”

Effects of fear arousal and reassurance on attitude change.

“…In a similar experiment which concerned persuading students to take tetanus innoculations, Dabbs and Leventhal (1966) failed to obtain any evidence for an interaction between fear arousal and efficacy, even though there was evidence that both of these independent variables had been successfully manipulated. Earlier, Moltz and Thistlethwaite (1955) used a similar design with dental hygiene communications and also failed to find evidence for such an interaction; the latter results were ambiguous since there was no direct evidence that the high-and low-fear conditions differed in fear arousal. Nonetheless, virtually all of the negative findings concerning the hypothesized interaction have been obtained in nonpunishment situations, where increased fear arousal is less likely to elicit defensive reactions.…”