Attitude May Be Everything, But Is Everything an Attitude? Cognitive Distortions May Not Be Evaluations of Rape

Abstract

Cognitive distortions are often referred to as attitudes toward rape in theory, research, and clinical practice pertaining to sexual aggression. In the social-psychological literature, however, attitudes are typically defined as evaluations; thus, in this context, attitudes toward rape are considered evaluations of rape (e.g., rape is negative vs. positive). The purpose of the current study was to explore whether a widely used measure of cognitive distortions (RAPE Scale; Bumby, 1996) assesses evaluation of rape, and, if not, whether evaluation of rape and the cognitions assessed by the RAPE Scale are independently associated with sexually aggressive behavior. Participants (660 male undergraduate students) completed the RAPE Scale as well as measures of evaluation of rape and sexually aggressive behavior. An exploratory factor analysis revealed that the RAPE Scale items formed a correlated but distinct factor from the Evaluation of Rape Scale items. Regression analyses indicated that the Evaluation of Rape Scale and the RAPE Scale had small to moderate independent associations with self-report measures of sexually aggressive behavior. Our results suggest that evaluation of rape may be distinct from cognitive distortions regarding rape, and both evaluation and cognitive distortions may be relevant for understanding sexual violence.

The Relationship Between Attitudes, Peer Norms, and Sexual Aggression

“…A recent study by my colleagues and I suggests that cognitive distortions may, in fact, be distinct from attitudes towards rape (Nunes et al, 2015). We conducted an exploratory factor analysis on data obtained from 660 heterosexual male undergraduate students to determine whether items from the RAPE scale and a semantic differential scale assessing attitudes towards rape (i.e., evaluation of rape) formed distinct or overlapping factors.…”

“…Additionally, many cognitive constructs do not seem to have one consistent definition. They argue that this lack of consistency in the definition and measurement of cognitive constructs can cause problems because if the labels and definitions applied to different cognitive constructs are not consistent, then it is difficult, if not impossible, to know exactly what the corresponding measures for each construct are assessing (Gannon & Polaschek, 2006;Nunes et al, 2013;Nunes et al, 2015).…”

“…The rape related cognitions outlined above are typically measured using selfreport scales that ask participants to indicate their level of agreement with statements like, "Many rapes happen because women lead men on" (Rape Myth Scale; Burt, 1980), and, "If a man has had sex with a woman before, then he should be able to have sex with her any time he wants" (RAPE scale; Bumby, 1996). Nunes et al (2015) argue these statements may reflect rape myths or cognitive distortions, or even an attitude towards rape, though exactly what is being measured is unclear. If someone were to agree with one of the statements would this necessarily mean they have a positive attitude towards rape?…”

“…Many theories suggest that attitudes can have a causal influence on behaviour (e.g., theory of planned behaviour, Azjen, 1991;2001), and meta-analyses have shown that attitudes can be important predictors of behaviour (r = .52,95% CI [.49 to .54], N = 4,598; Glasman & Albarracín, 2006;r = .38, k = 88;Kraus, 1995). In theories of sexual aggression, attitudes are also considered important risk factors for sexually aggressive behaviour (e.g., the hierarchical confluence model, Malamuth, 1986), and empirical research has shown that men with more negative attitudes towards rape are less likely to report past involvement in sexually aggressive behaviour than men with more positive attitudes towards rape (Bouffard, 2002;Nunes, Hermann, & Ratcliffe, 2013;O'Donohue, McKay, & Schewe, 1996;Nunes, Hermann, White, Pettersen, & Bumby, 2015). Additionally, many prevention programs identify problematic attitudes as important targets for treatment (Gidycz, Orchowski, & Berkowitz, 2011;Vladutiu, Martin, & Macy, 2011).…”

“…Although research has provided some evidence for the role of attitudes in sexual aggression, there is inconsistency in how attitudes towards rape are defined in the sexual aggression literature. Recently, Nunes and colleagues have argued that there is a discrepancy in how the term attitude is defined in social and forensic psychology (Nunes, Hermann, Maimone, & Woods, 2014;Nunes et al, 2013;Nunes, et al, 2015). In social psychology a cognitive construct must involve some level of evaluation to be considered an attitude.…”