Attachment, Exploration, and Separation: Illustrated by the Behavior of One-Year-Olds in a Strange Situation

Abstract

The concepts of attachment and attachment behavior are considered from an ethological-evolutionary viewpoint. Attachment heliavior and exploration are viewed in balance, and the biological functions of each are discussed. As an illustration of these concepts, a study is reported of 56 white, middle-class infants, 49-~51 weeks of age, in a strange situation. The presence of the mother was found to encourage exploratory behavior, her absence to depress exploration and to heigJiten attachment behaviors. In separation episodes such behaviors as crying and search increased. In reunion episodes proximity-seeking and contact-maintaining behaviors were heightened. In a substantial proportion of Ss, contact-resisting behaviors were also heightened in the reunion episodes, usually in conjunction with contactmaintaining behaviors, thus suggesting ambivalence. Some Ss also displayed proximity-avoiding behavior in relation to the mother in the reunion episodes. These findings are discussed in the context of relevant observational, clinical, and experimental studies of human and nonhuman primates, including studies of mother-child separation. In conclusion, it is urged that the concepts of attachment and attachment behavior be kept broad enough to comprehend the spectrum of the findings of this range of studies. Within the last decade the term "attachment" has appeared with increasing frequency in both empirical and theoretical segments of the developmental psychological literature (

Assessment of attachment behaviour to human caregivers in wolf pups (Canis lupus lupus)

“…In fact, this is what is predicted when a secure attachment is present, 320 known as the secure base effect (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970). However in Order 1, 321…”

“…Attachment behaviour refers to any "affectional tie" that one individual, be it 38 human or non--human animal, displays towards another specific individual 39 (Ainsworth and Bell, 1970). According to Ainsworth and Bell (1970, infants of many species since caregiver proximity can function as protection against 47 predators (Bowlby, 1958;Bowlby, 1982; for a review see Bretherton, 1992 or 48 Kraemer, 1997).…”

“…According to Ainsworth and Bell (1970, infants of many species since caregiver proximity can function as protection against 47 predators (Bowlby, 1958;Bowlby, 1982; for a review see Bretherton, 1992 or 48 Kraemer, 1997). This perspective incorporated the findings from the primate 49 literature that highlighted the importance of mother care for the healthy 50 development of rhesus monkeys and the readiness with which infant monkeys will 51 form attachments even to inanimate mother surrogates (Harlow, 1971; Kraemer, 52 1997).…”

“…53 More recent attachment research has extended the attachment framework to 54 the dog human--caregiver relationship. Topál et al (1998) were the first to adapt the 55 Ainsworth's Strange Situation Test (SST; Ainsworth & Bell, 1970) to assess whether 56 adult pet dogs show attachment to their human owners. In the SST, the subject is 57 brought into a novel room.…”

Settling for less out of fear of being single.

“…A lack of social connection is associated with negative emotional states (Blackhart, Nelson, Knowles, & Baumeister, 2009), impairments in self-regulation (Baumeister, DeWall, Ciarocco, & Twenge, 2005), hostility and aggression (Chow, Tiedens, & Govan, 2008;Leary, Twenge, & Quinlivan, 2006), and negative health outcomes such as increased risk of contracting illnesses and greater risk of mortality (Cohen, Doyle, Skoner, Beyond a broad need for social connection, attachment theory specifically highlights the need for close bonds with trusted attachment figures (Bowlby, 1969;Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007). The attachment system is rooted in infant-caregiver connections, and becomes activated in response to distress and threat in order to prompt individuals to seek security and comfort from caregivers (Ainsworth & Bell, 1970;Bowlby, 1969). The attachment system extends beyond the infant-parent association, such that youth and adults form attachments with close others and construe them as attachment figures (Fraley, Brumbaugh, & Marks, 2005;Hazan & Shaver, 1987).…”