Asterosaponins: Structures, Taxonomic Distribution, Biogenesis and Biological Activities

Abstract

Asterosaponins are a class of steroid oligoglycosides isolated from starfish with characteristic structures and diverse biological activities. In this review, we have attempted to combine the most important data concerning asterosaponins and give a list of these secondary metabolites with their structural peculiarities. The purpose of this review is to provide a brief but as complete as possible principal information about their chemical structures, taxonomic distribution in the marine environment, distribution in different geographical areas and depths, some properties, biological activities, and functions. Some other rare steroid metabolites from starfish, closely related in structures and probably biogenesis to asterosaponins, are also discussed.

Sulfated and Sulfur-Containing Steroids and Their Pharmacological Profile

“…It is known that sulfated steroids are of potential interest for practical and clinical medicine, due to the fact that many of them exhibit a wide range of biological activities; however, the activity of many sulfated steroids has not been determined [ 2 , 9 , 10 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 21 , 46 ].…”

“…Sulfur is one of the most abundant chemical elements in nature [ 1 , 2 ]. In addition, sulfur is found in many classes of organic compounds such as peptides, various terpenoids and steroids, and other compounds [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. More than 3000 different sulfur compounds are found in various ecological niches, including oceans and freshwater lakes, volcanic gases, sediments, and rocks [ 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 , 22 ].…”

“…Sulfate is generally readily available in aquatic ecosystems for many marine and freshwater organisms [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 9 , 10 , 14 , 18 , 20 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ]. The biochemistry and geochemistry of sulfur are currently well studied, and many publications are devoted to this topic [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 , 40 , …”

“…Sulfated compounds, including steroids, are widely distributed in nature [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Sulfated steroids and triterpenoids are found in many animals, reptiles, and humans [ 9 , 10 , 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ]. In addition, these compounds are present in extracts of plants and some shrubs, produced by microorganisms, fungi, and found in many marine invertebrates such as brittle star, starfish, sponges, ascidian, snails, and algae [ 2 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 ].…”

New Triterpene Glycosides from the Far Eastern Starfish Solaster pacificus and Their Biological Activity

“…At the same time, polar steroids and their glycosides are characteristic secondary metabolites of starfish (sea stars). The starfish steroidal glycosides may be divided into three major classes: glycosides of polyhydroxysteroids, cyclic glycosides, and asterosaponins [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 ]. Polyhydroxysteroidal glycosides from starfish have highly oxygenated steroidal aglycon.…”