Assessment of the Release of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor from 3D-Printed Poly-ε-Caprolactone/Hydroxyapatite/Calcium Sulfate Scaffold with Enhanced Osteogenic Capacity

Abstract

<jats:p>Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is one of the most crucial growth factors and an assistant for the adjustment of bone regeneration. In this study, a 3D scaffold is fabricated using the method of fused deposition modeling. Such a fabricated method allows us to fabricate scaffolds with consistent pore sizes, which could promote cellular ingrowth into scaffolds. Therefore, we drafted a plan to accelerate bone regeneration via VEGF released from the hydroxyapatite/calcium sulfate (HACS) scaffold. Herein, HACS will gradually degrade and provide a suitable environment for cell growth and differentiation. In addition, HACS scaffolds have higher mechanical properties and drug release compared with HA scaffolds. The drug release profile of the VEGF-loaded scaffolds showed that VEGF could be loaded and released in a stable manner. Furthermore, initial results showed that VEGF-loaded scaffolds could significantly enhance the proliferation of human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC). In addition, angiogenic- and osteogenic-related proteins were substantially increased in the HACS/VEGF group. Moreover, in vivo results revealed that HACS/VEGF improved the regeneration of the rabbit’s femur bone defect, and VEGF loading improved bone tissue regeneration and remineralization after implantation for 8 weeks. All these results strongly imply that the strategy of VEGF loading onto scaffolds could be a potential candidate for future bone tissue engineering.</jats:p>

3D-Printed Ginsenoside Rb1-Loaded Mesoporous Calcium Silicate/Calcium Sulfate Scaffolds for Inflammation Inhibition and Bone Regeneration

“…G0 presented a typical characteristic crystal peak which indicates the presence of a self-crystal structure. The spectra of CS-characteristic peaks were found at 2θ = 25.4°, 29°, 31.8°, 38.6°, and 49.2° [ 29 ]. MS-characteristic peaks were detected at 2θ = 31.7°, 32.8°, 47.6° [ 2 ].…”

Synthetic Material for Bone, Periodontal, and Dental Tissue Regeneration: Where Are We Now, and Where Are We Heading Next?

“…They are blended with each other or other inorganic materials such as ceramics to meet the specific needs for bone regeneration [ 106 ]. They can be encapsulated with bioactive molecules or growth factors to achieve controlled delivery of these molecules that have the ability to promote osteoblast differentiation and increase bone formation [ 107 ]. Currently, biodegradable polyesters are combined with ceramic such as HA and growth factors to be used as bioink for creating a 3D scaffold [ 108 ].…”

Printing New Bones: From Print-and-Implant Devices to Bioprinted Bone Organ Precursors

“…VEGF expression typically peaks around day 5/10 [83,84] and then decreases, whereas BMP-2 expression increases constantly until day 21, suggesting a need for delivery systems that support early release of VEGF and sustained release of BMP-2 [83][84][85][86][87]. To this end, the majority of bioprinting strategies have looked at delivering either growth factor alone or in combination to the site of injury with sustainable and physiologically relevant dosages such that repair is induced without these adverse effects [88][89][90][91][92][93][94][95][96][97][98][99]. A summary of these studies can be found in Table 1.…”