Assessment of the Presence of Lipophilic Phycotoxins in Scallops (Argopecten purpuratus) Farmed along Peruvian Coastal Waters

Abstract

Harmful algal blooms (HABs) are known to produce lipophilic marine biotoxins (LMTs) such as okadaic acid (OA) (and its analogues dinophysistoxins (DTXs)), yessotoxins (YTXs), pectenotoxins (PTXs), and azaspiracids (AZAs), all of which can accumulate in bivalve mollusks and exert noxious effects on humans. Health regulations indicate a limit up to 160 µg/kg for OA/DTXs, PTXs or AZAs, and 3.75 mg/kg for YTXs.Argopecten purpuratus is one of the most important commercial marine products exploited in Perú. Despite its importance and the periodic reports of the presence of HABs in Peruvian coastal waters, the lack of information regarding potential contamination by LMTs is noteworthy.In this work, we report a study performed with 115 samples of A. purpuratus collected between November 2013 and March 2015 from 18 scallop production areas distributed along the Peruvian coast in search of LMTs. To magnify positive results, the hepatopancreas tissue was analyzed by an LC-MS/MS method implemented to quantify OA, YTX, AZA-1, and PTX-2. Baseline separation was achieved in 19 min. The method showed satisfactory linearity (R 2 > 0.997), precision (coefficient of variation < 15 %), and limit of quantification (0.155-0.479 ng/mL). The study revealed the presence of YTX in 72 samples and of PTX-2 in 17 samples, with both biotoxins found at concentrations below the regulatory limits. Free OA and AZA-1 were not detected in any scallop sample. This atypical profile, presence of PTX-2 in the absence of OA, has been previously reported and may be linked to presence of the dinoflagellate D. acuminata . The production of YTX could be associated to the phytoplankton G. spinifera and P. reticulatum .This is the first systematic assessment of the four groups of LMTs in shellfish from Peruvian coastal waters. The results attained suggest low prevalence of marine biotoxins in Peruvian bay scallops yet support the necessity of future surveillance and analysis of LMTs in Perú.

Emerging Marine Biotoxins in European Waters: Potential Risks and Analytical Challenges

“…The responsible analogue was identified as AZA-1 and the main symptoms were nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and stomach cramps [ 72 ]. Today, the AZAs group consist of more than 60 compounds [ 21 ] and is mainly produced by dinoflagellates from genera Azadinium and Amphidoma [ 73 ]. For example, the species Azadinium poporum was proofed to produce AZA-2, -11, -36, -37, -40, -41, -42, -59, and -62, while Azadinium spinosum releases AZA-1, -2, -11, 33, -34, -35, -50, and -51; Azadinium dexteroporum produces epi -AZA-7, AZA-35, 54, -55, -56, -57, and -58; and Amphidoma languida produces AZA-2, -38, -39, -43, -52, and -53 [ 70 ].…”

New Trends in the Occurrence of Yessotoxins in the Northwestern Adriatic Sea

“…YTXs have been reported worldwide [ 22 ]: Peru [ 9 ], China [ 10 ], Namibia [ 23 ], USA [ 8 ], Italy, Norway, Scotland, Japan, Chile [ 24 ], and up to the Caucasian Black Sea Coast of the Russian Federation [ 25 ].…”

“…Since the initial discovery of YTX, many structures have been discovered and described, such as 45-hydroxyYTX, carbonYTX, 1-desulfoYTX, homoYTX, 45-hydroxyhomoYTX, and many others. More than 90 analogues have been suggested for YTXs, many of which have had their chemical structure fully identified in recent years, while others have not yet been clearly defined [ 7 , 8 , 9 , 10 ].…”

The Prevalence of Marine Lipophilic Phycotoxins Causes Potential Risks in a Tropical Small Island Developing State

“…), and marine mammals (shark, whales, and seals, etc. ). − The presence of MLPs in seafood will lead to poisoning incidents and even fatalities, as evidenced by numerous reported cases of MLP-related poisonings worldwide. − Typical MLPs include azaspiracids (AZAs), brevetoxins (BTXs), gymnodimine (GYM), spirolides (SPXs), okadaic acid (OA), dinophysistoxins (DTXs), pectenotoxins (PTXs), yessotoxins (YTXs), and ciguatoxins (CTXs). , The regulatory limit for these toxin groups proposed by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is set as 160 ng AZA equiv/g, 160 ng OA equiv/g, 3750 ng YTX equiv/g shellfish meat, and 0.01 ng P-CTX-1 equiv/g fish meat, but the regulatory limit for GYM, SPXs, and BTXs are unavailable …”