Assessment of mycotoxin exposure in CÔte D′ivoire (Ivory Coast) through multi-biomarker analysis and possible correlation with food consumption patterns

Abstract

Scope:The aim of the presented study was to investigate the mycotoxin exposure of Ivorian population related to the consumption patterns of maize, peanuts, millet, and cassava product (attiéké).Materials and Methods:Maize flour samples (n = 51) were purchased from all Abidjan local markets, in the south of Ivory Coast, and urine (n = 99) was collected during the same reference period (July–September 2011) from volunteers living in Abidjan and Daloa cities. Reversed-phase liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) was used to analyze aflatoxins (AFB1, AFB2, AFG1, and AFG2), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FB1, FB2), deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), and T-2 and HT-2 toxins in maize flour samples, and their relevant biomarkers (AFM1, DON, DON + de-epoxydeoxynivalenol (DOM-1), FB1, α-zearalenol (ZOL), β-ZOL, and OTA) in urine samples.Results:Critical maize contamination was observed by AFs occurrence (total AFs 4.5 – 330.0 μg/kg) while OTA was found in 13% of samples analyzed. AFM1 was detected in 40% of urines samples (0.06 – 14.11 ng/ml), OTA in 37% (0.01 – 0.42 ng/ml), FB1 in 27% (0.07 to 15.31 ng/ml) and, DON was found in 21% of samples at levels up to 10.0 ng/ml. The correlation coefficients (R2) obtained by plotting the percentage of biomarker occurrence (positive samples) versus the frequency of food consumption revealed maize, peanuts, millet and attiéké were strongly linked to AFB1 and OTA exposure with values of R2 ranged from 0.462 to 0.956.Conclusion:The present study provided data on mycotoxin risk in Ivory Coast, revealing a frequent co-exposure to the major mycotoxins such as AFs, OTA, and fumonisins, which appeared to be related to the frequency of peanuts, maize, millet and attiéké consumption.

Gender and geographical variability in the exposure pattern and metabolism of deoxynivalenol in humans: a review

“…Similar data were collected in West Africa by Kouadio et al . () with 8.0 ng ml −1 DON and no DOM‐1 in human urine samples ( Turner et al , ). However, in a study among women from Shanghai from the same investigator (Turner et al , ), the data showed much lower DON levels (4.8 ng ml −1 urine and 5.9 ng mg −1 creatinine) than those in UK adults.…”

“…() further analysed the levels of DON in urine samples of 27 test subjects (aged 21–77 years) from Valencia (Spain) in 2010 (from September to November). These data showed a pattern similar to Kouadio's report (Rubert et al ., ; Kouadio et al ., ), in which DON was confirmed in 33.3% of the samples, and the result was much lower than the occurrence in UK populations (98.7%) (Turner et al , ). Additionally, another investigation of multiple mycotoxin exposures was also conducted using urinary biomarkers in rural subsistence farmers in Transkei, South Africa (Shephard et al , ).…”

“…In Spain, DON was detected in 33.3% of all human urine samples (Rubert et al , ). In a French study, DOM‐1 was readily detected, whereas DOM‐1 was not found in most adults from the UK and the Ivory Coast (Turner et al , ,; ,; ,; Kouadio et al , ). In Austrian adults, DON and its glucuronide conjugates (DON‐GlcA) were found to serve as exposure biomarkers in urine (Warth et al , ).…”

Traditionally Processed Beverages in Africa: A Review of the Mycotoxin Occurrence Patterns and Exposure Assessment

“…High levels of CIT (occurrence: 12%; median: 1784 μg/kg), FB 1 (occurrence: 81%; median: 269 μg/kg), and AFB 1 (occurrence: 50%; median: 24 μg/kg) were reported in maize from Burkina Faso, whereas DON (median: 31.4 μg/kg) and ZEN (median: 13.4 μg/kg) were documented in not more than 10% of 26 samples (Warth and others ). Fifty‐one maize flour samples from Côte d'Ivoire were found to be laden with very high AFs (mean: 107.9 μg/kg) whereas FUM (mean: 355.5 μg/kg), OTA (mean: 21.5 μg/kg), and ZEN (mean: 14.0 μg/kg) levels were relatively low (Kouadio and others ). In Cameroon (Central Africa), where maize is commonly used to produce a local beer known as sha , AFs, FUM, DON, and ZEN levels in maize have been shown to reach 645, 24,225, 3,842, and 334 μg/kg, respectively (Njobeh and others ; Abia and others ; Ediage and others ).…”

Expanding the reach of probiotics through social enterprises

“…However, the sometimes-deadly aflatoxins released by Aspergillus sp. on contaminated maize (Kouadio et al, 2014), and the continued exposure of children to these toxins (Nduti et al, 2016) has led to proposals to return to consumption of fermented millet, in which the probiotic Yoba 2012 and GR-1 strains degrade the aflatoxins (Ahlberg et al, 2015;Mokoena et al, 2006;Musika et al unpublished;Nduti et al, 2017;Verheecke et al, 2016). For maize and other cereals, the use of microorganisms to detoxify aflatoxins has been researched, and by means of the locally made probiotic fermented food, this is expected to contribute to the reduction of a significant disease risk factor .…”