Assessment of Fruit and Vegetables Intake with Biomarkers in Children and Adolescents and Their Level of Validation: A Systematic Review

Abstract

Fruit and vegetables (FV) are part of a healthy diet and should be frequently consumed already at a young age. However, intake of FV is difficult to assess in children and adolescents due to various misreporting aspects. Thus, measurement of dietary biomarkers may be a promising alternative to assess FV intake more objectively at young age. To date, dietary biomarkers have been primarily studied in adults, and research focused on their usefulness in children is scarce. However, clinical studies have revealed important differences between children and adults, most importantly in their gut microbiome composition, resulting in differences in postprandial metabolism, as well as in food choices and meal compositions that may influence individual biomarker levels. Therefore, the present review aimed to identify biomarkers of FV intake (BFVI) currently available in children and adolescents and to explore whether there are any differences in the BFVI profile above between children and adolescents and adults. In addition, the current level of validation of BFVI in children and adolescents was examined. In total, 28 studies were eligible for this review, and 18 compounds were identified as potential biomarkers for FV intake in children and adolescents. Carotenoid concentration in skin was a valuable biomarker for total FV intake for both children and adult populations. Common BFVI in blood in adults (e.g., carotenoids and vitamin C) showed inconsistent results in children and adolescents. Biomarkers particularly useful in children included urinary hippuric acid as a biomarker of polyphenolic compound intake originating from FV and the combination of N-methylnicotinic acid and acetylornithine as a biomarker of bean intake. Further studies are needed to assess their kinetics, dose–response, and other validation aspects. There is limited evidence so far regarding valid BFVI in children and adolescents. Thus, to put BFVI into practice in children and adolescents, further studies, particularly based on metabolomics, are needed to identify and validate BFVI that can be used in future epidemiological studies.

Food-Derived Uremic Toxins in Chronic Kidney Disease

“…A high intake of benzoic acid is associated with an increased production of hippurate, which, in physiological conditions, is excreted in urine [ 77 , 78 ]. A high urinary hippurate concentration has been used in several studies as a biomarker for fruit and vegetable intake, and it is generally associated with a positive outcome [ 79 , 80 ]. A recent study in CKD patients found that a dietary acid load corresponding to a high intake of animal-derived food was inversely associated with hippurate plasma concentration.…”

Biomarkers of Berry Intake: Systematic Review Update

“…This could potentially be used to assess compliance in human studies. However, they may not specific enough to be considered BFIs of blueberries within the overall diet of an individual, as there are many other anthocyanin-rich foods containing malvidin glycoside, and hippuric acid is a metabolite found after the consumption of many different types of (poly)­phenols and also part of other endogenous pathways. , In addition, intact anthocyanins are not an optimal biomarker of intake due to their instability and low concentration in biofluids …”

Immunosenescence and Immune Exhaustion Are Associated with Levels of Protein-Bound Uremic Toxins in Patients on Hemodialysis

“…The kinetics of HA are rather complicated as its levels are increased by dietary habits (fruit and vegetable consumption) and reduced during aging. The urinary excretion of HA is increased with age and age-related diseases, such as cognitive impairments, rheumatic diseases, sarcopenia, and hypomobility, and has been proposed as a potential hallmark of aging, frailty, and age-related diseases [ 35 , 36 ]. There are currently not enough data regarding the HA concentration and kinetics in CKD; its protein binding is reduced to 37% in uremic conditions.…”