“…This often requires trading off consumer confidence and smooth market operations, at the risk of creating negative market effects either way (UNCTAD 2016;USITC 2013). For example, Graef, Wahyuningtyas, and Valcke (2015) document how, in the case of online platforms, successful companies might foreclose competition by raising barriers to entry in the collection of user data, thereby damaging competitors and new entrants that need access to those data to provide competing or complementary services. New challenges are also posed by recent innovations in information and communications technology (ICT), such as cloud services, 9 the Internet of Things, 10 and big data analytics, 11 which are revolutionizing the way in which social, economic, and financial activities are currently undertaken, but at the same time rely on personal-data-intensive technologies and processes (UNCTAD 2016).…”