Aspects of Stimulation and Organization in Approach/Withdrawal Processes Underlying Vertebrate Behavioral Development

Variation and homogeneity in affective responses to physical activity of varying intensities: An alternative perspective on dose – response based on evolutionary considerations

“…Based on this, we accept that some types of affective responses can be induced directly by somatic afferent cues and some require cognitive elaboration (Cacioppo, Berntson, & Klein, 1992). This view is also consistent with Schneirla's (1959Schneirla's ( , 1965 position that, in adult organisms, approach towards or withdrawal from stimuli (and, presumably, pleasure or displeasure, respectively) are driven by two interacting forces: (a) the fundamental tendency to approach weak and avoid intense stimuli, and (b) an increasingly influential superimposed component that reflects the learning and experience accumulated over the course of one's life. Within this hierarchical system, control can shift from more complex to simpler mechanisms and vice versa, depending on which can provide the appropriate response to a given situation (Berntson & Cacioppo, 2000;den Dulk, Heerebout, & Phaf, 2003;Toates, 1998Toates, , 2002.…”

“…Following Bartley (1970), Cabanac (1971Cabanac ( , 1995, Damasio (1995Damasio ( , 1999Damasio ( , 2000, Schulze (1995) and others, we believe that pleasure and displeasure are tied to the maintenance of homeostasis. We follow the rationale expressed in Schneirla's (1959Schneirla's ( , 1965 seminal theory of approachwithdrawal motivation, adopting the belief that both the absence of stimulation and the presence of intense stimulation are stressful. Based on this, Schneirla proposed that, at least for organisms at an early ontogenetic stage, low intensities of speciesspecific, survival-important stimulation tend to evoke approach reactions, whereas high intensities tend to evoke withdrawal reactions with reference to the source of the stimulation.…”

Effects of tactile stimulation on the initiation and maintenance of the following response in Japanese quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica)

“…The greatest strength of following occurred when tactile stimulation was permitted during both preexposure and testing periods. It was concluded that the results support the hypothesis that tactile stimulation can facilitate both the initiation and maintenance of following behavior, and this is interpreted as being consistent with Schneirla's (1965) theory. Schneirla (1965) has suggested that the following response of young nidifugous birds has antecedents in embryo behavior, particularly in early movements of the head.…”

“…It was concluded that the results support the hypothesis that tactile stimulation can facilitate both the initiation and maintenance of following behavior, and this is interpreted as being consistent with Schneirla's (1965) theory. Schneirla (1965) has suggested that the following response of young nidifugous birds has antecedents in embryo behavior, particularly in early movements of the head. He indicated that head movements initially come under control of low intensity, proximal stimuli, such as tactile stimuli, when the head of the embryo is raised and comes into contact with soft contractile tissues.…”

“…Another possible reason for the lack of observed effect of tactile contact in these earlier studies may be their use of relatively older chicks, which have already made the transition from proximal to distal stimulus control of approach behavior. In view, however, of the suggestion b) ' Schneirla (1965) and Salzen (1970) that following behavior will wane without contact reinforcement, the effect of tactile stimulation on the following response of older chicks should be investigated. Still another possible basis for the discrepancy between the findings in this experiment and previous ones may be the species used.…”