Asian international students' ethnic identity, spirituality, acculturation, and experience of racism: relationship with attitude toward seeking professional therapeutic help

Abstract

Acculturation is defined as a process of "culture change" which is initiated by the "conjunction of two or more autonomous cultural systems" Acculturation is a result of "direct cultural transmission" or of "ecological or demographic modifications" which are influenced by the majority culture (Social Research Council, 1954, as cited in Sodowsky et al., 1991, p. 195). According to Lin and Yi (1997), Asian international students struggle with the acculturation process. Differences between their own culture and the host culture can cause significant intrapersonal and interpersonal problems. Another cultural variable that has received little attention with regards to Asian international students is their experiences of stress stemming from racism. Even among Asian Americans, this topic has received little attention compared to discrimination issues with African Americans and Latino Americans (Liang, Li, & Kim, 2004). It is important to note that discrimination and racism do affect mental health status (Brown, 2001). According to Phinney (1996), as members of minority groups and, in this case, international students develop a greater sense of awareness about their own group and place in the larger society, the more they become aware of racism and discrimination. The cultural systems framework addresses the significance of this variable. Kagawa-Singer and Chung (2002) say that discrimination and racism happen when a certain group is identified by its external characteristics such as color of skin, language, or religion, and that these external characteristics are used to make judgments about self worth of individuals. Furthermore,