Asian American men.

Abstract

Asian Americans are the fastest growing population in the United States-growth between 2000 and 2010 was 46% (U.S. Census Bureau, 2011). The major ethnic groups among Asian Americans include Chinese (3.8 million), Filipino (3.4 million), Indian (3.2 million), Vietnamese (1.7 million), and Korean (1.7 million). Among this group, Asian American men, although heterogeneous in terms of culture and ethnicity, make up a distinct population that has been systematically marginalized and traditionally understudied. Accordingly, in this chapter we provide a comprehensive literature review of research that has examined the lives of Asian American men. Among the topics discussed are stereotypes, racism, Asian American men's socialization to masculinity and masculine norms, Asian cultural values, and health outcomes. In reviewing the literature pertaining to this topic, we discuss empirical findings and theoretical constructs and their clinical implications. Additionally, we examine limitations in the existing literature and suggest, and elaborate on, potential future directions for research. Although we discuss clinical implications and health outcomes for heterosexual Asian American men, we approach the topic from several theoretical standpoints, including minority masculinity stress theory (Lu & Wong, 2013), to further elucidate the intersections of race, discrimination, masculinity, and health outcomes. We use the term Asian American in this chapter to characterize the racialized experience incurred by this group, that is, despite one's own ethnic identification (i.e., Chinese American), Both authors contributed equally with respect to conceptualization and writing of the chapter.

Gendered Perceptions of East and South Asian Men

“…Racial stereotypes are gendered such that Asian Americans are stereotypically considered as more feminine than Black and White people (Galinsky et al, 2013;Johnson et al, 2012;Wilkins et al, 2011). In the United States, Asian women are seen as exotic and objects of sexual desires (Hwang & Parreñas, 2021) and Asian men are seen as effeminate and asexual (Iwamoto & Kaya, 2016). As such, the larger Asian American group is seen as more feminine than other racial groups.…”

“…All these groups were, and continue to be, unfairly scrutinized by neighbors and the US government (Cainkar, 2018). Consequently, South Asian Americans (and men in particular) are stereotyped not only as extremely foreign but they may even be perceived as anti-American terrorists and dangerous religious extremists (Iwamoto & Kaya, 2016;Thangaraj, 2015).…”

The intersectional prototypicality model: Understanding the discriminatory experiences of Asian American women and men.

“…Research has shown that stereotypes associated with Asian Americans are the most feminine and least masculine 2 , as compared to Blacks and Whites, who occupy an intermediate position between Asian Americans and Blacks (Galinsky et al, 2013; Wilkins et al, 2011). Specifically, research on stereotypes about Asian Americans has consistently identified attributes consistent with feminine stereotypes and those signifying a lack of masculinity—being passive, quiet, shy, non-dominant, family-oriented, and physically weak (Berdahl & Min, 2012; Ho & Jackson, 2001; Lin et al, 2005; Mukkamala & Suyemoto, 2018; Wong et al, 2012; also, see Iwamoto & Kaya, 2016 and Uchida, 1998).…”

“…Further, reflecting the power and privileges associated with Whiteness in U.S. society, White men and women tend to be perceived as having the “right amount” of masculinity and femininity, respectively; by contrast, men and women of color are stereotyped as having deviant levels of (i.e., excessive or too little) masculinity and femininity, respectively (Iwamoto & Kaya, 2016; Ridgeway & Kricheli-Katz, 2013). Several studies have found support for this gendered racial perspective.…”

“…These results mirror interracial marriage data from the U.S. Census showing Asian American women have consistently higher rates of marriage to non-Asian Americans than Asian American men (Galinsky et al, 2013). Importantly, these gendered racial stereotypes did not emerge in a vacuum but are rooted in historical, racist practices that psychologically emasculated Asian American men (see Iwamoto & Kaya, 2016 for a more detailed discussion).…”