’As safe as houses; the risk of childhood lead exposure from housing in England and implications for public health’

Abstract

Background and aim: Exposure to lead can harm a child's health, including damage to the nervous system, delayed growth, hearing loss, and many other adverse health effects, as well as implications for social, economic, educational and social well-being. Lead exposure in children is still a concern and cases require public health management to find the exposure source and interrupt the exposure pathway. Housing characteristics can indicate the presence of leadcontaminated paint and leaded water supply pipes. We aimed to explore the relationship between housing characteristics and elevated blood lead concentration (BLC) in children in England. Methods:We used a retrospective cohort design and included all cases of lead exposure in children reported to the UK Health Security Agency between 2014 and 2020 via surveillance. A case was a child aged under 16 years, resident in England, BLC of ≥ 0.48 μmol/L (10 µg/dL) and referred for public health management. We collected case demographic details and housing characteristics (age and type). We explored associations between elevated BLC and risk factors, using generalised linear mixed effects models and compared cases' housing type to that expected nationally. Results:Two hundred and sixty-six out of 290 cases met the case definition. There was no difference in BLCs between genders, age groups, deprivation, and housing type. After adjusting for reporting source, housing age and type, cases residing in housing built pre-1976 had a BLC of 0.32 (95%CI 0.02, 0.63) µmols/L (6.63 (95%CI 0.42, 13.0) µg/ dL) higher than cases living in housing built after this time. Cases were 1.68 times more likely to be living in terraced housing (housing adjoined to one another) than other children and less likely to live in apartments and detached properties. Conclusion:This study suggests an association between housing characteristics and BLC in children. Housing age and type may act as a proxy for lead exposure risk through exposure to leaded paint, lead water pipes, and lead contaminated dust from indoor and outdoor sources. Public health action should consider targeting families more at risk in older housing by raising awareness of the potential presence of lead pipes and paint. Interventions should include working with wider stakeholders including other housing and environmental professionals, the private sector, as well as parents and carers.

Lead exposure sources and public health investigations for children with elevated blood lead in England, 2014 to 2022

“…The association between lead exposure and social deprivation has also been seen in other populations [ 29 , 30 ]. However, some studies have not identified a relationship between IMD quintiles and BLC [ 31 ].…”

“…In this study, where asked, 43% of cases knowingly lived in homes built before 1970, whilst 28% did not know and therefore, this percentage could be underestimated. Studies in England [ 31 ] and internationally [ 35 – 37 ] have identified housing age as a risk factor for lead exposure or higher BLC. Published literature tends to focus on household characteristics (age, type) as a proxy for exposure to household sources.…”