Artistic exchange and experimental variation: studies in the workshop practice of Lucas Cranach the Elder

Non-destructive investigation of a late panel painting by Lucas Cranach the Elder

“…Low intensity Pb and Fe lines were registered on the ground layer as well suggesting the existence of a priming layer (imprimitura, a translucent toning of the ground) containing lead white and small amounts of earth pigments. As indicated by previous studies (Heydenreich 1998), Cranach's ground layers were typically white (based on chalk bound in animal glue), with rare exceptions having a reddish color obtained by mixing red lead, white lead and calcium carbonate. The use of a white priming as intermediate layer to adjust the properties of the ground was also documented (Heydenreich 1998) as characteristic for German paintings at the beginning of the 16th century.…”

“…Modeling of the volumes (udermodelling) with greyish washes was frequently documented among Cranach's practice. Other studies (Heydenreich 1998) showed that the linear underdrawings were efficiently integrated in the painting process as final shadows, with underdrawings generally based on a black drawing medium or red chalk in later works. Detailed inspection of the registered infrared images (Fig.…”

“…A prolific artist with over 1000 surviving artworks (Hand 1993;Heydenreich 2007;Lubashevsky 2015), Cranach headed a large workshop that included among the numerous apprentices, his sons Hans, and Lucas the Younger. Cranach's continual search for the most efficient techniques enabled the development of a rapid style that facilitated the workshop production (Heydenreich 1998). Starting with the mid 1520s hundreds of artworks were produced with many works existing in different variations (Frank 2015).…”

“…After his death, paintings in "Cranach style" and versions of his works were still produced by his studio, giving rise to many problems of attribution. Cranach's impressive legacy -which includes paintings, woodcuts, copper engravings, book illustrations and drawings, inspired numerous studies along the yearsfrom technical studies focused on Cranach's style and workshop practice (Heydenreich 1998(Heydenreich , 2007, to stylistic and iconographic analyses (Lubashevsky 2015;Tabutsadze et al 2021;Zorzin 2020), and, more recently, to interdisciplinary studies focused on technical aspects (Klisińska-Kopacz et al 2022;Molari and Appoloni 2019). In recent decades, new knowledge on attribution, authenticity, and dating of Cranach's paintings has been gained through systematic study of his painting materials and techniques.…”

Correlated x-ray fluorescence and ptychographic nano-tomography on Rembrandt’s The Night Watch reveals unknown lead “layer”

“…Here, the method of using a lead-rich oil (oil of litharge) instead of glue is advised after observing a case in which the paint and glue-sized canvas of a painting separated after hanging on a damp wall for several years. At least since the Middle Ages, lead, specifically red lead, in oil has been used to preserve stone, wood, and metal against humidity (33).…”