Article Commentary: The Emerging Role of Eicosapentaenoic Acid as an Important Psychoactive Natural Product: Some Answers but a Lot more Questions

Ross, Brian M.

doi:10.4137/lpi.s1013

Cited by 5 publications

(4 citation statements)

References 92 publications

(93 reference statements)

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“…The two long-chain omega 3 FAs, EPA and DHA, have overlapping functions in the brain, but are not interchangeable. Thus, while DHA has been shown to be effective in inhibiting amyloid and Tau pathologies (30,31) and improving cognition and memory (32,33), it is not effective in improving depression (8,9). On the other hand, several clinical and experimental studies have shown that EPA is more effective in the prevention and treatment of depression (7-9, 34), but it is less effective than DHA in improving memory and cognition (35).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In the brain, EPA is converted to DHA, but the retro conversion of DHA to EPA is negligible (4,37). Therefore, if EPA has certain unique benefits, such as its mood-improving effects, it is unlikely that DHA could substitute for it, as is evident from the preclinical and clinical trials (8,9). On the other hand, because EPA is easily converted to DHA in the brain (37), it is possible to get the benefits of both EPA and DHA by increasing brain EPA levels.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Dietary lysophosphatidylcholine-EPA enriches both EPA and DHA in the brain: potential treatment for depression

Rao

Sugasini

Dasarathi

et al. 2019

Journal of Lipid Research

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The two major long-chain omega 3 FAs in animal tissues are EPA and DHA. Both of these FAs are known to have beneficial effects as anti-inflammatory agents and protect against various metabolic and neurologic diseases. Although the DHA concentration is higher than EPA in most tissues, the brain and retina are unique in having very high levels of DHA but virtually no EPA (1). The major dietary sources of EPA and DHA are fish, fish oil, and krill oil, all of which usually contain more EPA than DHA (2). However, the EPA levels in the brain are not increased significantly following the feeding of fish oil, krill oil, or even ethyl ester of EPA, although other tissues are enriched in both EPA and DHA (3-6). Interestingly, several clinical and preclinical studies showed that dietary EPA is superior to dietary DHA in the prevention and treatment of depression (7-9). It is therefore puzzling how EPA protects against depression without being incorporated appreciably into the brain. To explain this paradox, it has been proposed that the beneficial effects of EPA may result from the suppression of peripheral inflammation or from its hepatic conversion to DHA, rather than from a direct effect on the brain (10). However, the conversion of EPA to DHA cannot explain why dietary DHA does not have similar effects. The lack of enrichment of brain EPA by the dietary EPA has been explained by proposing that EPA is rapidly oxidized by the brain, in contrast to DHA (11,12). This mechanism is supported by kinetic studies with labeled FAs showing the generation of more water-soluble degradation products from EPA, compared with DHA in the brain (10,11). An alternative explanation that has not been explored is that the omega 3 FAs taken up into the brain do not Abstract EPA and DHA protect against multiple metabolic and neurologic disorders. Although DHA appears more effective for neuroinflammatory conditions, EPA is more beneficial for depression. However, the brain contains negligible amounts of EPA, and dietary supplements fail to increase it appreciably. We tested the hypothesis that this failure is due to absorption of EPA as triacylglycerol, whereas the transporter at the blood-brain barrier requires EPA as lysophosphatidylcholine (LPC). We compared tissue uptake in normal mice gavaged with equal amounts (3.3 mol/day) of either LPC-EPA or free EPA (surrogate for current supplements) for 15 days and also measured target gene expression. Compared with the no-EPA control, LPC-EPA increased brain EPA >100-fold (from 0.03 to 4 mol/g); free EPA had little effect. Furthermore, LPC-EPA, but not free EPA, increased brain DHA 2-fold. Free EPA increased EPA in adipose tissue, and both supplements increased EPA and DHA in the liver and heart. Only LPC-EPA increased EPA and DHA in the retina, and expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor, cyclic AMP response element binding protein, and 5-hydroxy tryptamine (serotonin) receptor 1A in the brain. These novel results show that brain EPA can be increased through diet. Because LPC-EPA increase...

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Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Dietary lysophosphatidylcholine-EPA enriches both EPA and DHA in the brain: potential treatment for depression

Rao

Sugasini

Dasarathi

et al. 2019

Journal of Lipid Research

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“…Moreover, GI problems have become one of the main problems faced by ultra-endurance runners [6], and such complaints may be of varying severity, although symptoms may include nausea, vomiting, abdominal angina, and bloody diarrhea [34]. Between 30% and 90% of these athletes have experienced some types of GI problem while competing [6,8,20,32,35,36]. While the causes of GI symptoms during prolonged exercise are multifactorial [32,37,38], CHO contained in foods and beverages could intensify these situations [39], and so GI problems could be another reason why SOUT athletes do not adhere to nutritional recommendations [5,6,8,32,35,38,40,41].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Relationship of Carbohydrate Intake during a Single-Stage One-Day Ultra-Trail Race with Fatigue Outcomes and Gastrointestinal Problems: A Systematic Review

Arribalzaga

Viribay

Calleja-González

et al. 2021

IJERPH

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Due to the high metabolic and physical demands in single-stage one-day ultra-trail (SOUT) races, athletes should be properly prepared in both physical and nutritional aspects in order to delay fatigue and avoid associated difficulties. However, high carbohydrate (CHO) intake would seem to increase gastrointestinal (GI) problems. The main purpose of this systematic review was to evaluate CHO intake during SOUT events as well as its relationship with fatigue (in terms of internal exercise load, exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) and post-exercise recovery) and GI problems. A structured search was carried out in accordance with PRISMA guidelines in the following: Web of Science, Cochrane Library and Scopus databases up to 16 March 2021. After conducting the search and applying the inclusion/exclusion criteria, eight articles in total were included in this systematic review, in all of which CHO intake involved gels, energy bars and sports drinks. Two studies associated higher CHO consumption (120 g/h) with an improvement in internal exercise load. Likewise, these studies observed that SOUT runners whose intake was 120 g/h could benefit by limiting the EIMD observed by CK (creatine kinase), LDH (lactate dehydrogenase) and GOT (aspartate aminotransferase), and also improve recovery of high intensity running capacity 24 h after a trail marathon. In six studies, athletes had GI symptoms between 65–82%. In summary, most of the runners did not meet CHO intake standard recommendations for SOUT events (90 g/h), while athletes who consumed more CHO experienced a reduction in internal exercise load, limited EIMD and improvement in post-exercise recovery. Conversely, the GI symptoms were recurrent in SOUT athletes depending on altitude, environmental conditions and running speed. Therefore, a high CHO intake during SOUT events is important to delay fatigue and avoid GI complications, and to ensure high intake, it is necessary to implement intestinal training protocols.

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“…DHA is commonly believed to be the key element for mental health as it is an essential component of neuronal membranes and thus critical to the structure of the brain and nervous system, while EPA is believed to have direct interactions with cyclo-oxygenases, lipoxygenases, phospholipases, acylating systems, ion channels, mitochondria, and the peroxisome proliferator activated receptors. It is also thought to exert regulatory influences on gene expression [39][40][41]. Nevertheless, more studies are needed to better understand the role of these FAs in CV disease and mental health.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 96%

Plasma Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Survival in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure and Major Depressive Disorder

Jiang

Oken²,

Fiuzat

et al. 2011

J. of Cardiovasc. Trans. Res.

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The omega-3 fatty acid (FA) concentration is low in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD). Supplement of omega-3 FA improves cardiovascular outcomes in patients with CHD and heart failure (HF). However, plasma omega-3 FA and its role for prognosis in HF patients have not been examined previously. In this study, we explore the prognostic value of omega-3 polyunsaturated FA in HF patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). Plasma was obtained from HF patients with MDD who participated in the Sertraline Against Depression and Heart Disease in Chronic Heart Failure trial. FA methyl esters were analyzed by the method of a flame ionization detector. Weight percent is the unit of the omega compounds. The primary outcome was survival which was analyzed using Cox proportional hazards regression modeling. A total of 109 depressed HF patients had adequate volume for completion of the FA assays. Plasma total omega-3 (hazard ratio [HR] 0.65, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.43-0.98) and EPA_(0.1 unit) (HR 0.73, 95% CI 0.56-0.96) were significantly associated with survival of patients with HF and co-morbid MDD. The results suggest that low plasma omega-3 FA is a significant factor for reduced survival in HF patients with MDD.

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Article Commentary: The Emerging Role of Eicosapentaenoic Acid as an Important Psychoactive Natural Product: Some Answers but a Lot more Questions

Cited by 5 publications

References 92 publications

Dietary lysophosphatidylcholine-EPA enriches both EPA and DHA in the brain: potential treatment for depression

Dietary lysophosphatidylcholine-EPA enriches both EPA and DHA in the brain: potential treatment for depression

Relationship of Carbohydrate Intake during a Single-Stage One-Day Ultra-Trail Race with Fatigue Outcomes and Gastrointestinal Problems: A Systematic Review

Plasma Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids and Survival in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure and Major Depressive Disorder

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