Arsenic, Antimony, and Bismuth

Abstract

The production of arsenic usually occurs as a by‐product of smelting of copper, lead, or gold ores. It has been estimated that the atmospheric flux of arsenic was ∼73,540 tons/year, 60% of which was of natural origin, and the rest was derived from anthropogenic sources. This element is used for a variety of industries including glass manufacturing, wood preservatives, metal alloys, pesticides, and in the manufacture of semiconductors as a dopant for silicon‐based semiconductors or the production of III–V semiconductors such gallium arsenide and indium arsenide. Fowler's solution (potassium arsenite‐As 3+ ) had been used in the past to treat a variety of clinical illnesses such as leukemia and skin disorders such as psoriasis and bronchial asthma but was supplanted by more modern chemotherapeutic agents during the past 20 years. More recently, As 3+ has been effectively used to treat acute promyelocytic leukemia. Human exposure to inorganic arsenic may occur via air, food, and water. Persons consuming seafood generally have higher total intakes of arsenic, but the chemical forms of arsenic are primarily arsenobetaine and other methylated species of relatively low toxic potential. Arsenic is a general systemic poison whose toxic and medicinal properties have been known for several thousand years. The carcinogenic properties of inorganic arsenicals in humans have been known for several hundred years. Sb as an element is a brittle, flaky, crystalline (hexagonal) silver‐white metal. It does not react with air at room temperature but burns brightly when heated and forms white fumes. It is a poor conductor of electricity and heat. Antimony occurs in tri‐ (+3) and pentavalent (+5) compounds and is found in the Earth's crust mostly associated with sulfur as stibnite and in ores associated with arsenic. Antimony is a group VA element of the periodic table and it has many of the same chemical and biological properties as the element arsenic. Stibine gas is odorless. Exposure to antimony at high levels may result in a variety of adverse health effects. For example, breathing high levels of antimony and some of its compounds can irritate the eyes and lungs and can cause problems with the heart, lungs, and stomach. Historically, antimony compounds were used as emetics and expectorants. Recently, antimony compounds, such as tartar emetic and sodium stibogluconate, are used as anthelmintic and antiprotozoal drugs in treating parasitic diseases and infections. It plays no role in nutrition and is a nonessential element. Bismuth is a brittle, white, crystalline metal that has a pinkish tint. It is the most diamagnetic of all metals, and its thermal conductivity is lower than that of any metal except mercury. In addition, bismuth has high electrical resistance and the highest Hall effect of any metal. Inorganic salts of bismuth are poorly water soluble; solubility is influenced by the acidity of the medium and the presence of additional certain compounds containing sulfhydryl or hydroxyl groups. Bismuth belongs to the group VA of the periodic table together with arsenic and antimony, and forms compounds in the +3 and +5 oxidation states. Bismuth occurs in the native form; however, it is found largely in nature in minerals such as bismite, bismuthinite, and bismutite and is usually associated with sulfide ores of lead and copper and tin dioxide. Human exposure to bismuth and bismuth compounds is quite limited, except for its use in medicine where it has been prescribed for more than a century. Occupational and environmental exposure to bismuth and its toxicological significance are still unknown.

Antimony Accumulation in Wheat Seedlings Grown in Soil and Water

“…It was reported that a significant amount of antimony sulfide (Sb 2 S 3 ) contained in the brake pads is oxidized during braking processes (Von Uexküll et al 2005), thus leading to the formation of the suspected human carcinogen antimony oxide (Sb 2 O 3 ). Exposure to Sb can cause cellular injury to heart, liver, lungs, and kidneys (Fowler, Madden, and Chou 2012). Although the exact mechanisms have not yet been elucidated, some preliminary studies suggest that toxicity is related to the interactions of the thiol compounds (Leonard and Gerber 1996;Filella, Williams, and Belzile 2009).…”

Cytotoxicity of Shear Exfoliated Pnictogen (As, Sb, Bi) Nanosheets

“…The trends obtained in this study is in good agreement with toxicity studies conducted on pnictogen compounds, whereby the toxicity of pnictogens decreases down the group. Arsenicals are deemed as systemic poisons, with LD 50 values ranging from 10–250 mg kg −1 , due to its inhibitory effects on cellular respiratory functions, which subsequently decreases mitochondrial energy production. On the other hand, acute antimony and bismuth poisoning are considered remarkably rare where the LD 50 values of antimonials range from 152–3584 mg kg −1 , whereas bismuth compounds range from 2.2–22.5 g kg −1 in rodents …”

“…The trends obtained in this study is in good agreement with toxicitys tudies conducted on pnictogen compounds, whereby the toxicity of pnictogens decreases down the group. Arsenicals are deemed as systemic poisons, with LD 50 values ranging from 10-250 mg kg À1 , [52] due to its inhibitory effects on cellular respiratory functions, which subsequently decreases mitochondrial energy production.O nt he other hand, acute antimony and bismuth poisoning are considered remarkably rare where the LD 50 values of antimonials range from 152-3584 mg kg À1 , [52,53] whereas bismuth compoundsr ange from 2.2-22.5gkg À1 in rodents. [54,55] From both WST-8 and MTT data plottedi nF igure 6i ti s shownt hat pnictogen nanosheets are generally less toxic than pnictogen(III) salts, with the exceptiono fa rsenic nanosheets being more toxic than its salt counterpart at concentrations above 50 mgmL À1 .B oth bismuth and antimonial drugs have seen long histories in therapeutic purposes,t hese antimony and bismuth nanosheets could be potentially applied in biomedicalf ields.…”

Arsenic and type 2 diabetes: commentary on association of inorganic arsenic exposure with type 2 diabetes mellitus: a meta-analysis by Wanget al.

“…Exposure to iAs results in subsequent urinary metabolites monomethylarsonic acid and dimethylarsinic acid. Approximately 75% of absorbed iAs is excreted in urine as monomethylarsonic acid and dimethylarsinic acid 36. Using total urinary arsenic is a major limitation because arsenobetaine is excreted after ingestion of various seafoods and should not be included in the iAs exposure assessment in urine 36…”