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Adults with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have been described as having altered resting‐state electroencephalographic (EEG) spectral power and theta/beta ratio (TBR). However, a recent review (Pulini et al. 2018) identified methodological errors in neuroimaging, including EEG, ADHD classification studies. Therefore, the specific EEG neuromarkers of adult ADHD remain to be identified, as do the EEG characteristics that mediate between genes and behaviour (mediational endophenotypes). Resting‐state eyes‐open and eyes‐closed EEG was measured from 38 adults with ADHD, 45 first‐degree relatives of people with ADHD and 51 unrelated controls. A machine learning classification analysis using penalized logistic regression (Elastic Net) examined if EEG spectral power (1–45 Hz) and TBR could classify participants into ADHD, first‐degree relatives and/or control groups. Random‐label permutation was used to quantify any bias in the analysis. Eyes‐open absolute and relative EEG power distinguished ADHD from control participants (area under receiver operating characteristic = 0.71–0.77). The best predictors of ADHD status were increased power in delta, theta and low‐alpha over centro‐parietal regions, and in frontal low‐beta and parietal mid‐beta. TBR did not successfully classify ADHD status. Elevated eyes‐open power in delta, theta, low‐alpha and low‐beta distinguished first‐degree relatives from controls (area under receiver operating characteristic = 0.68–0.72), suggesting that these features may be a mediational endophenotype for adult ADHD. Resting‐state EEG spectral power may be a neuromarker and mediational endophenotype of adult ADHD. These results did not support TBR as a diagnostic neuromarker for ADHD. It is possible that TBR is a characteristic of childhood ADHD.
Adults with attention‐deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) have been described as having altered resting‐state electroencephalographic (EEG) spectral power and theta/beta ratio (TBR). However, a recent review (Pulini et al. 2018) identified methodological errors in neuroimaging, including EEG, ADHD classification studies. Therefore, the specific EEG neuromarkers of adult ADHD remain to be identified, as do the EEG characteristics that mediate between genes and behaviour (mediational endophenotypes). Resting‐state eyes‐open and eyes‐closed EEG was measured from 38 adults with ADHD, 45 first‐degree relatives of people with ADHD and 51 unrelated controls. A machine learning classification analysis using penalized logistic regression (Elastic Net) examined if EEG spectral power (1–45 Hz) and TBR could classify participants into ADHD, first‐degree relatives and/or control groups. Random‐label permutation was used to quantify any bias in the analysis. Eyes‐open absolute and relative EEG power distinguished ADHD from control participants (area under receiver operating characteristic = 0.71–0.77). The best predictors of ADHD status were increased power in delta, theta and low‐alpha over centro‐parietal regions, and in frontal low‐beta and parietal mid‐beta. TBR did not successfully classify ADHD status. Elevated eyes‐open power in delta, theta, low‐alpha and low‐beta distinguished first‐degree relatives from controls (area under receiver operating characteristic = 0.68–0.72), suggesting that these features may be a mediational endophenotype for adult ADHD. Resting‐state EEG spectral power may be a neuromarker and mediational endophenotype of adult ADHD. These results did not support TBR as a diagnostic neuromarker for ADHD. It is possible that TBR is a characteristic of childhood ADHD.
This article explores the extent to which cognitive historiography can be employed to comment on debates concerning the interpretation of meditative experiences in select Buddhist texts. In particular, this article considers references to meditation-related fear and other associated emotional, perceptual, and cognitive changes. Qualitative data from Western Buddhist meditation practitioners and meditation teachers are employed to further illustrate the range of fear-related experiences and how they are interpreted. To account for why certain references to fear in Buddhist literature could plausibly be read as representative of meditation-related experiences, this article develops cognitive models based on neuroscientific research on meditation as well as from cognitive and affective neuroscience more broadly. However, this process reveals some current limitations in the field of neuroscience of meditation as well as other methodological difficulties faced by cognitive historiography when attempting to account for religious experiences from other cultures and from distant times.
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