Are women invisible as leaders?

Porter, Natalie; Geis, Florence L.; Jennings, J. A. M.

doi:10.1007/bf00289420

Cited by 37 publications

(30 citation statements)

References 22 publications

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“…Gaertner and Bickman (1971) developed an effective telephone version of the Milgram et al lost-letter technique, showing that it plausibly assessed prejudice toward Blacks. Porter, Geis, and Jennings-Walstedt (1983) showed that greater use of head-of-table seating as an indicator of leadership for male than female stimulus persons provided an indirect measure of gender stereotyping. J. D. Johnson, Jackson, and Gatto (in press) similarly reported an indirect measure of race stereotyping in the form of greater influence by damaging inadmissible evidence for Black than White defendants in a simulated trial.…”

Section: Other Indirect Measuresmentioning

confidence: 99%

Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes.

Greenwald

Banaji

1995

Psychological Review

5,165

112

3,659

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Social behavior is ordinarily treated as being under conscious (if not always thoughtful) control. However, considerable evidence now supports the view that social behavior often operates in an implicit or unconscious fashion. The identifying feature of implicit cognition is that past experience influences judgment in a fashion not introspectively known by the actor. The present conclusionthat attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes have important implicit modes of operation-extends both the construct validity and predictive usefulness of these major theoretical constructs of social psychology. Methodologically, this review calls for increased use of indirect measures-which are imperative in studies of implicit cognition. The theorized ordinariness of implicit stereotyping is consistent with recent findings of discrimination by people who explicitly disavow prejudice. The finding that implicit cognitive effects are often reduced by focusing judges' attention on their judgment task provides a basis for evaluating applications (such as affirmative action) aimed at reducing such unintended discrimination.Long before they became central to other areas of psychological theory, concepts of cognitive mediation dominated the analysis of social behavior. The constructs on which this article focuses achieved early prominence in social psychological theory with formulations that were partly (attitude) or entirely (stereotype) cognitive. By the 1930s, Allport (1935) had declared attitude to be social psychology's "most distinctive and indispensable concept" (p. 798), Thurstone (1931;Thurstone & Chave, 1929) had developed quantitatively sophisticated methods for attitude measurement, and Braly (1933, 1935) had introduced a method that is still in use to investigate stereotypes. Self-esteem, an attitudinal construct to which this article gives separate treatment because of its prominence in recent research, also has a long-established history (e.g., James, 1890; see overview in Wylie, 1974Wylie, , 1979.Through much of the period since the 1930s, most social psychologists have assumed that attitudes, and to a lesser extent stereotypes, operate in a conscious mode. This widespread assumption of conscious operation is most evident in the nearuniversal practice of operationalizing attitudes (including selfesteem) and stereotypes with direct (instructed self-report) measures. The pervasiveness of direct measurement for attitudes and stereotypes was documented by Greenwald (1990) and by Banaji and Greenwald (1994) and is further reviewed below. In contrast, this article describes an indirect, unconscious, or implicit mode of operation for attitudes and stereotypes. 1 Anthony G. Greenwald, Department of Psychology, University of Washington; Mahzarin R. Banaji, Department of Psychology, Yale University.Preparation of this report as well as conduct of some of the research reported in it were supported by National Science Foundation Grants DBC-9205890 and DBC-9120987 and by National Institute of Mental Health Grant MH-41328. We thank...

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Section: Other Indirect Measuresmentioning

confidence: 99%

Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes.

Greenwald

Banaji

1995

Psychological Review

5,165

112

3,659

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

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“…Regarding leadership, situational cues such as seating arrangement might act as a heuristic for identifying persons in leadership or power positions at a table, the typical site for decision making in small groups. A body of past research has confirmed that the end, or head, position of a rectangular table to be most associated with leaders of small groups (Davenport et al 1971;Jackson et al 2005;Knapp and Hall 2002;Lott and Sommer 1967;Pellegrini 1971;Porter et al 1983;Sommer 1967;Strodtbeck and Lipinski 1985).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 94%

Think Leader, Think Male and Female: Sex vs. Seating Arrangement as Leadership Cues

2007

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This investigation challenged the long-accepted male-oriented ideology of "think male, think leader" by using social and gender identity theoretical frameworks to examine same-gender biases and the situational leadership cue of the end-of-the-table position. In an experiment consisting of 241 undergraduates enrolled in a large southwestern university in the U.S. (105 men, 135 women, and 1 sex unreported), participants viewed diagrams of male and female figures, in either same-sex or mixed-sex groups, and selected a leader. The end-of-the-table cue held, but the 120 participants (74 women, 46 men) shown mixedsex groups with a man and a woman shown at both ends of a table chose same-gender leaders significantly more than opposite-gender leaders. Whereas the results suggest that the "think leader, think male" ideology still holds among young men, findings also demonstrated a shift away from this ideology among young women.

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“…Women are often invisible as leaders 17,18 -another factor perpetuating their out-group status in academic medicine. Illustrating this, studies of sketches of men and women around a table find a man versus a woman at the head of the table is more often viewed as the leader, particularly by male raters.…”

Section: Why Jane Is Invisiblementioning

confidence: 99%

“…Illustrating this, studies of sketches of men and women around a table find a man versus a woman at the head of the table is more often viewed as the leader, particularly by male raters. 17,18 Despite Jane's accomplishments, gender stereotypes operated in several ways to decrease the perception of her as a leader, thereby keeping her in the out-group. First, assumptions that women lack the agentic traits associated with leadership made it less likely for her to be ''seen'' as a leader-this is referred to as descriptive bias.…”

Section: Why Jane Is Invisiblementioning

confidence: 99%

Stuck in the Out-Group: Jennifer Can't Grow Up, Jane's Invisible, and Janet's Over the Hill

Kaatz

Carnes

2014

Journal of Women's Health

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Fifty years after Title IX, women remain sparsely represented in high ranks and leadership in academic medicine. Although men and women enter the career pipeline at similar rates, academic medicine does not equivalently advance them. Currently, women account for 32% of associate professors, 20% of full professors, 14% of department chairs, and 11% of deans at U.S. medical schools-far from the near sex parity seen in medical students since the 1990s. Over 30 years of research confirms that gender stereotypes can operate to disadvantage women in review processes and consequently bar their advancement in domains like science and medicine. The authors present three vignettes to illustrate how gender stereotypes can also operate to disadvantage women in social interactions by positioning them in the ''out-group'' for many career-advancing opportunities. The authors argue that policies alone will not achieve gender equity in the academic medicine workforce. Addressing stereotype-based gender bias is critical for the future of academic medicine. Interventions that treat gender bias as a remediable habit show promise in promoting gender equity and transforming institutional culture to achieve the full participation of women at all career stages. A critical step is to recognize when gender stereotyped assumptions are influencing judgments and decision making in ourselves and others, challenge them as unjust, and deliberately practice replacing them with accurate and objective data.

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Are women invisible as leaders?

Cited by 37 publications

References 22 publications

Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes.

Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes.

Think Leader, Think Male and Female: Sex vs. Seating Arrangement as Leadership Cues

Stuck in the Out-Group: Jennifer Can't Grow Up, Jane's Invisible, and Janet's Over the Hill

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