Are There Effects of Intrauterine Cocaine Exposure on Delinquency During Early Adolescence? A Preliminary Report

Abstract

Objective To ascertain whether level of intrauterine cocaine exposure (IUCE) is associated with early adolescent delinquent behavior, after accounting for prenatal exposures to other psychoactive substances and relevant psychosocial factors. Methods Ninety-three early adolescents (12.5–14.5 years old) participating since birth in a longitudinal study of IUCE reported delinquent acts via an audio computer assisted self interview (ACASI). Level of IUCE and exposure to cigarettes, alcohol, and marijuana were determined by maternal report, maternal and infant urine assays, and infant meconium assays at birth. Participants reported their exposure to violence on the Violence Exposure Scale for Children – Revised (VEX-R) at ages 8.5, 9.5, 11 years and during early adolescence, and the strictness of supervision by their caregivers during early adolescence. Results Of the 93 participants, 24 (26%) reported ≥3 delinquent behaviors during early adolescence. In the final multivariate model (including level of IUCE and cigarette exposure, childhood exposure to violence, and caregiver strictness/supervision) ≥ 3 delinquent behaviors were not significantly associated with level of IUCE but were significantly associated with intrauterine exposure to half a pack or more of cigarettes per day and higher levels of childhood exposure to violence, effects substantially unchanged after control for early adolescent violence exposure. Conclusions In this cohort, prospectively ascertained prenatal exposure to cigarettes and childhood exposure to violence are associated with self-reported delinquent behaviors during early adolescence. Contrary to initial popular predictions, intrauterine cocaine is not a strong predictor of adolescent delinquent behaviors in this cohort.

Effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on adolescent development

“…Others have also reported that PCE is associated with child or adolescent behavior problems, particularly externalizing behaviors such as aggression and delinquency (Bada et al, 2011, 2012; Bennett et al, 2007, 2013; Delaney-Black et al, 2000; Fisher et al, 2011; McLaughlin et al, 2011; Min, Minnes, Lang et al, 2014; Min, Minnes, Yoon et al, 2014; Minnes et al, 2010; Nordstrom Bailey et al, 2005; Sood et al, 2005; Whitaker et al, 2011). However, not all reports have confirmed these findings (Accornero et al, 2002, 2006; Allen et al, 2014; Bada et al, 2008; Bennett et al, 2002; Bridgett et al, 2011; Gerteis et al, 2011; Greenwald et al, 2011; Linares et al, 2006; Savage et al, 2005; Warner, Behnke, Hou et al, 2006). This is an important domain to investigate because adolescent behavior problems predict poorer outcomes in adulthood, including substance abuse, risky sex, psychiatric disorders, and less successful adjustment (Doherty et al, 2008; Fergusson et al, 2007; Ramrakha et al, 2007).…”

Systematic Review of Prenatal Cocaine Exposure and Adolescent Development

“…20 Another found that PCE, together with current caregiver cocaine use, caregiver negativity, community violence exposure, and prenatal tobacco exposure, was associated with adolescent cocaine use 18 ; another reported associations between heavy prenatal tobacco exposure (but not PCE) and violence, with delinquent behaviors. 46 Five studies found that postnatal caregiver drug use/drugs in the home 18,[20][21][22]32 and caregiver psychiatric/depressive symptoms [18][19][20]22,32 were associated with adolescent behavior problems. Another study found an association between community violence and peer victimization.…”

“…Eight studies examined externalizing/ internalizing behaviors, [19][20][21][22][23]34,35,46 with mixed findings ( (1) is not mentioned, (2) is reported only as percentages of how many participants were exposed to that drug, or (3) is reported only as differences in each exposure between prenatally cocaine exposed and nonexposed groups. "Yes" indicates (1) authors examined the exposures as potential covariates but exposures did not meet their own criteria for inclusion in their models or (2) authors included them as covariates in models.…”

“…12,18,[20][21][22]32,34,35,46 Ten studies examined the caregiving environment and violence exposure, primarily postnatal/current caregiver drug use (N = 7), quality of the home (N = 3), caregiver stability (N = 4), caregiver depression/psychopathology (N = 5), community violence (N = 8), and home violence (N = 7; Table 6). One study found the relationship between heavy PCE and behavioral problems was mediated by caregiver changes.…”

Risk-Taking Behavior Among Adolescents with Prenatal Drug Exposure and Extrauterine Environmental Adversity

“…Such deviant behaviors are often most prevalent in males, both cocaine-exposed and nonexposed (9–11, 15). Follow-up studies of preadolescents and adolescents with PCE have also reported evidence that other factors—prenatal and postnatal nicotine exposure (13, 15), childhood exposure to violence (9, 12–13), ongoing caregiver substance use (4), and association with violent peers (9)—are associated with self-reported delinquent behavior. In addition, deficits in inhibitory control among children with PCE have been observed in recent research suggesting that exposed youth may be at increased risk of developing subsequent behavioral problems in part due to difficulties in regulating attention and impulsivity (16–18).…”