Are the self-employed more stressed? New evidence on an old question

Abstract

Are the self-employed more stressed than the employed? Current research on entrepreneur stress are mixed. We utilize the ageadjusted telomere length to test the influence of human capital on self-employment and stress. Data from 3,580 adults in the 1999-2000 and 2001-2002 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were fitted to a theoretical model. Our findings support previous studies showing a positive relationship between self-employment and psychological stress. Moreover, we find that job tenure strengthens this relationship, implying that the self-employed who experience mental stress may find it challenging to recover the longer they have been self-employed.

COVID-19 Burnout Subject to the Dynamic Zero-COVID Policy in Hong Kong: Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the COVID-19 Burnout Frequency Scale

“…The feedback was checked and considered by a panel consisting of the first, second, and third authors and the items were reworded and rephrased as appropriate until satisfactory agreement was obtained. The items were graded on a seven-point Likert scale (1 to 7): never (1), a few times a year (2), at least once a month (3), several times a month (4), once a week (5), several times a week (6), and once per day or more (7). The questions are related to frequency of burnout feelings in coping with COVID-19, covering the following areas: emotional exhaustion and physical tiredness, boredom because of travel restriction, out of control in life, as well as stress, confusion, hopelessness, and frustration with and adherence to the COVID-19 prevention measures.…”

“…However, extensive contact tracing, mandatory testing, and strict social distancing measures of the zero-COVID policy have disrupted almost every individual, directly or indirectly, in every aspect of their lives, including, work, study, social life, and even normal daily routine. Together with the unpredictable end of the pandemic, with repeated waves of different variants, many people have felt socially restricted, frustrated, and hopeless, and have been subject to increased levels of stress, anxiety, depression, fears, post-traumatic stress and burnout [2][3][4][5][6][7]. Some have reported being physically and emotionally drained as they did not know when they could resume normal activities and felt desperate even though they had strictly adhered to the anti-epidemic measures [8].…”

The Biological Perspective in Entrepreneurship Research

“…A further line of research seeks to examine the biology-environmental complex by studying how physiological recovery during night-time sleep affect entrepreneurs' creativity (Weinberger et al, 2018) and well-being (Wach et al, 2020). Related emerging research has used physiological biomarkers of stress to understand whether entrepreneurship is a more demanding occupation than organizational employment (Lee et al, 2020;Patel et al, 2019b) and to evaluate interventions to improve entrepreneurs' well-being after business failure (Schermuly et al, 2020).…”

“…More critically, these interactions may provide useful explanations for the apparent contradictions in the linear relationships in our traditional models. For example, the simple question of whether entrepreneurs are more stressed than non-entrepreneurs is still the subject of inquiry to which physiologic measures of stress can offer new insights (Lee et al, 2020). We do not claim that biological explanations, because they refer to fundamental mechanisms, make economic, sociological, and psychological explanations less important.…”

Emotional demands and entrepreneurial burnout: the role of autonomy and job satisfaction

“…Over time, entrepreneurs may view these responsibilities as a personal burden (Bencsik & Chuluun, 2021 ; Cubbon et al, 2020 ). Entrepreneurs can report high emotional demands (i.e., entrepreneurial burnout) because of one or more of the following issues: stress and frustration (Boyd & Gumpert, 1983; Shepherd et al, 2010 ; Lechat & Torrès, 2017 ; Wach et al, 2020 ); uncertainty and risk relating to business survival and development (Jamal, 2007 ; Lee et al, 2020 ; Rauch et al, 2018 ; Torrès et al, 2021); fear and anxiety (Boyd & Gumpert, 1983; Jamal, 2007 ; Lee et al, 2020 ); high workload (Lechat & Torrès, 2016 ); limited leisure time (van der Zwan & Hessels, 2019 ); and/or loneliness (Morris et al, 2012 ; Patzelt & Shepherd, 2011 ). Inevitably, entrepreneurs with negative emotions report the entrepreneurial burnout syndrome (Lechat & Torrès, 2016 ; Palmer et al, 2021 ; Torrès & Thurik, 2019 ; Wach et al, 2020 ).…”