Are the Rural Electrification Efforts in the Ecuadorian Amazon Sustainable?

Abstract

Abstract:In this paper, we assess the sustainability of rural electrification programs in Ecuador, paying special attention to programs targeting small indigenous communities in the Amazon basin. Our assessment considers four dimensions of sustainability (institutional, economic, environmental, and socio-cultural) and is based on an exhaustive qualitative document analysis, complemented by semi-structured expert interviews. We found that disruptive changes have affected the electrification policies in Ecuador during decades of avoiding the development of strengthened institutions. Despite this major drawback, we found that there is a consensus on granting access to energy for all. This partially explains the national efforts, persistent through different administrations to fund rural electrification. However, in the case of off-grid photovoltaic solutions, these efforts have consistently neglected allocating funds for operation and maintenance, which has seriously compromised the sustainability. Moreover, although Ecuadorian officials declared to favor stand-alone photovoltaic systems in the case of indigenous communities in the Amazon, we found that environmental or socio-cultural aspects have a minor role in the selection of these systems. Progress regarding environmental awareness, social acceptance, and cultural justice, is still needed for ensuring the sustainability of rural electrification efforts in the Ecuadorian Amazon.

Sustainability of Off-Grid Photovoltaic Systems for Rural Electrification in Developing Countries: A Review

“…These institutional flaws frequently refer to an incoherent legal frame (e.g., between the constitution, laws and regulations) [100]. In Ecuador for example, inconsistencies between the constitution and the regulations have been observed: though energy was declared a basic right within the Ecuadorian Constitution, it was not anchored in the law, nor put into practice [63]. Similarly, the Chinese Renewable Energy Law showed inconsistencies and even contradictions between its different versions that were frequently changed [101].…”

“…Concerning stability, in Ecuador for example, disruptive changes of institutions (conveyed by frequent changes in the constitution, elimination/creation of ministries and changing regulations) have been shown to compromise the sustainability of off-grid PV systems adopted for the electrification of rural indigenous communities in the Ecuadorian Amazon basin [63]. In Ghana, the weak (instable) institutional framework has been pointed out as the main reason for the lacking dissemination of SHS [83]; although incentives on RE were announced in this country, they were later rejected by lawmakers [72].…”

“…In Ecuador for example, the high rate of rural electrification can be partially explained by the existence of "Fund for Rural and Urban-marginal Electrification" (FERUM by its Spanish acronym). Since 1998 until 2008, the FERUM received resources from a 10% tax charged to the tariff paid by on-grid commercial and industrial consumers around the country, funding initial investments associated with rural electrification efforts [63]. In Bangladesh, the state-owned IDCOL provides soft loans to so-called Partner Organizations, companies that install the PV systems and operate them afterwards; IDCOL itself receives funds from international donors, such as the World Bank, to foster private investments [87,88].…”

“…Often, the lack of proper education, regulations and incentives may lead to environmental issues. For example, in Ghana and in the Ecuadorian Amazon basin, the lack of policies for ensuring recycling and proper disposal of PV modules and batteries after the end of their service life resulted in the batteries being simply buried, releasing acid substances into nearby lakes and rivers [63,160].…”

“…The set of indicators used in Table 1 were adapted from Feron et al [63] to qualitatively evaluate the sustainability of the analyzed rural electrification efforts. …”