Are Perceptions of Discrimination Unidimensional, Oppositional, or Intersectional? Examining the Relationship among Perceived Racial–Ethnic-, Gender-, and Age-Based Discrimination

Abstract

This study investigates the relationship among perceptions of racial-ethnic, age, and gender discrimination for racial-ethnic minority individuals. Three broad frameworks for understanding discrimination are described: unidimensional, oppositional, and intersectional. The strengths of each approach are assessed by analyzing data from the General Social Surveys (2002, 2006, and 2010). Findings provide no support for the oppositional framework, qualified support for the unidimensional framework, and strong support for the intersectional framework. Many racialethnic minorities perceive discrimination on the basis of only one social status. Among older respondents, however, more than half of those who perceive racial-ethnic discrimination also perceive discrimination based on age. Half of the racial-ethnic women surveyed who perceive racial-ethnic discrimination also perceive gender discrimination. Moreover, perceptions of gender-, age-, and race-based discrimination are significantly and positively correlated with one another. The results highlight the benefits of using an intersectional framework to conceptualize and analyze multiple forms of discrimination.Social science research reveals that perceptions of discrimination remain high in the contemporary United States. Ronald C. Kessler, Kristin D. Mickelson, and David R. Williams (1999) found that one-third of respondents in a nationally representative study perceived at least one "major" experience with discrimination over the course of their lives, and 61 percent of respondents perceived "day-to-day" discriminatory experiences. Forman, Williams, and Jackson (1997) found that 70 percent of African Americans report experiencing at least one discriminatory event in their lifetime, and a recent study by

Jeopardy, Consciousness, and Multiple Discrimination: Intersecting Inequalities in Contemporary Western Europe

“…While intersectionality theory originated in the United States, multiple discrimination is not currently recognized as such within the U.S. legal frameworks, nor is multiple discrimination acknowledged in most U.S. social science survey research (Crenshaw ; Harnois ). Few large‐scale U.S. surveys ask respondents about such a wide range of minority identities, such varied forms of discrimination (e.g., religious, sexual orientation, disability), and encourage them to select “all that apply.” To my knowledge, there are no existing large‐scale surveys of the United States that explicitly address multiple discrimination.…”

“…Studies focusing on a single type of discrimination are similarly limited in their ability to assess multiple discrimination. Often relying upon a “monist” framework, these studies imply that various types of discrimination generally occur separately, and that those who experience racial, age‐based, and/or gender‐based discrimination interpret this mistreatment as stemming from a single system of inequality (Harnois ; Harnois and Ifatunji ).…”

Gender discrimination in the United States: Experiences of women

“…Nonetheless, respondents may have not been comfortable answering these questions over the phone and also may have interpreted questions differently based on varying backgrounds and expectations. Women may also face multiple types of discrimination simultaneously based on intersecting parts of their social identities (eg, based on both gender and race) . It is not always possible for women to disentangle the reasons they face discrimination, so restricting analyses to only gender‐based discrimination may result in underreporting of discrimination by some respondents, and this may be different across women of different racial/ethnic or LGBTQ identities.…”

“…Experiencing gender discrimination may negatively impact women's health through parallel mechanisms, that is, through both psychological and physiological stress responses and health behaviors that lead to worse health outcomes . Research in the field also suggests that women who are racial/ethnic minorities are disproportionately exposed to discrimination and are also more likely to experience health effects of discrimination . Similarly, women who identify as LGBTQ are at higher risk for experiencing discrimination than their non‐LGBTQ counterparts …”

“…15,16 Research in the field also suggests that women who are racial/ethnic minorities are disproportionately exposed to discrimination and are also more likely to experience health effects of discrimination. [17][18][19][20] Similarly, women who identify as LGBTQ are at higher risk for experiencing discrimination than their non-LGBTQ counterparts. 20,21 While older studies document gender discrimination in discrete areas of women's lives (eg, the workplace), increasing evidence about the health risks of discrimination suggests an updated examination across a broader range of areas is warranted.…”