Archaeometric evidence for the earliest exploitation of lignite from the bronze age Eastern Mediterranean

Abstract

This paper presents the earliest evidence for the exploitation of lignite (brown coal) in Europe and sheds new light on the use of combustion fuel sources in the 2nd millennium BCE Eastern Mediterranean. We applied Thermal Desorption/Pyrolysis–Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry and Polarizing Microscopy to the dental calculus of 67 individuals and we identified clear evidence for combustion markers embedded within this calculus. In contrast to the scant evidence for combustion markers within the calculus samples from Egypt, all other individuals show the inhalation of smoke from fires burning wood identified as Pinaceae, in addition to hardwood, such as oak and olive, and/or dung. Importantly, individuals from the Palatial Period at the Mycenaean citadel of Tiryns and the Cretan harbour site of Chania also show the inhalation of fire-smoke from lignite, consistent with the chemical signature of sources in the northwestern Peloponnese and Western Crete respectively. This first evidence for lignite exploitation was likely connected to and at the same time enabled Late Bronze Age Aegean metal and pottery production, significantly by both male and female individuals.

Diet at the onset of the Neolithic in northeastern Iberia: An isotope–plant microremain combined study from Cova Bonica (Vallirana, Catalonia)

“…Triticeae starch occurs, reinforcing the data from phytoliths of cereal use. The rich presence of charcoal indicates close contact with fires (Hardy et al, 2012;Buckley et al, 2021). It is unclear how close this contact was and whether these particles represent airborne charcoal inhaled, water-carried charcoal that was drunk, or the consumption of charcoal-covered or other sources.…”

Beyond dirty teeth: Integrating dental calculus studies with osteoarchaeological parameters

“…Furthermore, it is nearly impossible to assess the frequency and intensity of exposure to respiratory irritants based only on the particles found in dental calculus, and prolonged exposure to high concentration of them would be necessary to result in a pathology. Buckley et al (2021) have tentatively used the size of microcharcoal to assess the nature of the exposure to smoke, however, as shown by Bartholdy and Henry (2021) , there are complex interactions between the physical structure of dental calculus and its ability to ‘capture’ microparticles, resulting in a clear selection process in relation to their size. Care must be taken in the interpretation of such results.…”

“…While linking such evidence to ‘high exposure’ to respiratory irritants should be cautious, the combination of dental calculus micremains and osteoarchaeological parameters may strengthen the interpretation of the remains in calculus, while providing complementary evidence to pathologies. Further work on this topic is urgently needed, however a step forward has been recently made by Buckley et al (2021) , who were able to detect, for the first time the inhalation of fire-smoke from lignite using Thermal Desorption/Pyrolysis–Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry in dental calculus from the Eastern Mediterranean dating 2nd millennium BCE.…”

Earliest systematic coal exploitation for fuel extended to ~3600 B.P.

“…The main body of the site was dated to the later period (~3600 to 2900 B.P. ), effected by the expansion of the Andronovo culture 13), (4) sites with reported use of coal for fuel in central China (16,20), (5) Roman Britain (19), and (6) two Late Bronze Age sites with evidence of lignite combustion in eastern Mediterranean (17). (B) Geographic setting of JRTGK and the relevant coal outcrops.…”