Archaeometallurgical Characterization of Hellenistic Metal Objects: The Contribution of the Bronze Objects From Rishon Le‐zion (Israel)*

Abstract

An archaeometallurgical analysis is presented of 14 bronze artefacts retrieved from an Early Hellenistic–period farmstead in controlled archaeological excavations at Rishon Le‐Zion, Israel, and dated to the first quarter of the third century bce according to coins and pottery vessels. The bronze assemblage includes a needle, pins, spatulas and fibulas. The aims of the research are to determine the composition, microstructure and manufacturing process of these artefacts, and to discover their place of production. This will provide a better understanding of Hellenistic technological abilities and material culture. The examination included optical microscopy, microhardness, SEM including EDS, and XRD. The results show that the collection consists of Cu–Sn binary alloys, with evidence for a controlled alloying process and the absence of recycling. Furthermore, the microstructure of the objects indicates that all artefacts were produced by a cold‐working process. Moreover, the manufacturing process of the rectangular cross‐section fibulas included sophisticated joining techniques of copper and iron.

Bronze Jewellery from the Early Iron Age urn-field in Mała Kępa. An approach to casting technology

“…The roasting had taken place at about 350°C in an oxidizing atmosphere and thereby the resulting ore was partially oxidized and desulphurised [9,11,12]. This is in agreement with the presence of sulphur inclusions and above-average iron weight fractions (0.21wt%) in the alloy profile of the MaKa_28.…”

“…MaKa_4, MaKa_6-7, MaKa_21). Although lead improves fluidity and castability, it also brings a deleterious effect to the ductility of the alloys [9]. Nevertheless it was probably an additive used by the Lusatian metalworkers not for economic but rather technological reasons.…”

“…The alloys contained numerous impurities of Ni, As, Ag and Sb and thereby impacting the technological properties. Interestingly, some of the artefacts have reached relatively low-tin levels of less than 2wt% Sn (MaKa_26 and MaKa_33-35) suggesting that bronzes in-use had been recycled [9].…”

“…While the elements such as Ag, As and Sb tend to agglomerate as impurities on the grain boundaries, Fe, Pb and S usually form Cu2−xFexSinclusions in the tin-bronze matrix [10]. It is commonly assumed that copper containing sulphur was produced by the smelting of chalcopyrite ore [9] and therefore it is likely that sulphide-rich ore was used to manufacture the MaKa_28 nail earring. The microstructures observed on cross-sections are coherent and indicative of implementing a 3-step manufacturing process: (1) casting by a lost-wax method followed by (2) annealing and finished with (3) slight forging to a final shape.…”

“…The nail earrings were cast in tin-bronze. In fact, the castings contain the levels of tin (7.2wt% and 13wt%) suggesting that the alloys could have been kept in their as-cast condition [9].…”