Application of various processes to recycle lithium-ion batteries (LIBs): A brief review

Closing the Loop on LIB Waste: A Comparison of the Current Challenges and Opportunities for the U.S. and Australia towards a Sustainable Energy Future

“…Over the last few years, there have been numerous journal publications, review articles, and reports highlighting the current LIB recycling processes and potential options for improvements to reduce energy consumption and gas emissions which are well documented [70][71][72][73][74][75][76][77]. The two most common industrial methods for recycling LIBs are pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy.…”

Synergistic Approach for Selective Leaching and Separation of Strategic Metals from Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries

“…Pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and direct recycling of preprocessed and mechanically treated spent LIBs have proven highly beneficial in recovering major essential elements. , Hydrometallurgical processes offer distinct advantages, including the requirement for lower temperatures, reduced energy consumption, higher recovery rates, production of pure end-products, and utilization of straightforward techniques. These inherent benefits make hydrometallurgy a preferred and advantageous choice compared to pyrometallurgical and other conventional methods. , The hydrometallurgical approach involves using different processes such as leaching, solvent extraction, precipitation, adsorption, and many more, owing to their differential solubility in different solvents to reinstate minerals in the desired form. , Leaching, a pivotal step in the hydrometallurgical process involves the dissolution of essential metal ions from waste LIBs into a solution, typically utilizing acidic lixiviants, either organic or inorganic . While both types of acids can yield similar leaching efficiencies, organic acids are favored for their eco-friendly attributes .…”

“… 17 , 18 Leaching, a pivotal step in the hydrometallurgical process involves the dissolution of essential metal ions from waste LIBs into a solution, typically utilizing acidic lixiviants, either organic or inorganic. 19 While both types of acids can yield similar leaching efficiencies, organic acids are favored for their eco-friendly attributes. 20 They contribute to a reduced environmental impact during leaching, acting as environmentally benign solvents that reduce exposure to toxic gases and address water salinity concerns.…”

Two-step leaching of spent lithium-ion batteries and effective regeneration of critical metals and graphitic carbon employing hexuronic acid

“…Various techniques have been utilized to develop LIB recycling, however, hydrometallurgy is frequently employed in industrial sectors as a cost-effective and environmentally sustainable method to extract valuable metals from spent LIBs due to its higher efficiency and lower harmful gas emissions. 20–22 Several investigations have been conducted on the leaching of critical metals using both inorganic acids (such as HCl, 23 HNO 3 , 24 H 2 SO 4 , 25,26 and H 3 PO 4 27 ) and organic acids (such as citric acid, 28,29 malic acid, 30,31 lactic acid, 32 ascorbic acid, 33 oxalic acid, 34 and succinic acid 35 ). Compared to inorganic acids, organic acids are almost natural and sustainable.…”