Application of Urinary and Fecal Steroid Measurements for Monitoring Ovarian Function and Pregnancy in the Bonobo (Pan paniscus) and Evaluation of Perineal Swelling Patterns in Relation to Endocrine Events1

Abstract

Estrone conjugates (E1C), pregnanediol glucuronide (PdG), and estriol (E3) in urine, and immunoreactive E1C, E3, pregnanediol (Pd), and progesterone (P4) in feces were determined along with records of perineal sex skin swelling throughout 7 nonconception cycles and 3 full-term pregnancies of 4 adult female bonobos (Pan paniscus). A typical preovulatory urinary E1C surge and postovulatory increase in urinary PdG were seen during the menstrual cycles. Fecal progestin levels were significantly correlated with those of PdG in urine in all cycles, while E1C measurements in feces were significantly correlated with those in urine in only 3 cycles. On the basis of hormone profiles, a variable follicular phase of 17-40 days and a relatively constant luteal phase of 11-15 days was found, resulting in cycle lengths of 31-51 days. All urinary and fecal hormones were markedly elevated during pregnancy. Measurement of E1C in both urine and feces was most useful for early pregnancy diagnosis, while E3 was of value in confirming pregnancy and assessing fetal viability. The period of perineal swelling during the cycle comprised on average 66.3% of cycle length, half of which was associated with a phase of maximum tumescence. Ovulation usually occurred within the maximum swelling phase, but timing of ovulation within this period was highly variable and was more closely associated with the end rather than the onset of maximum tumescence. The data presented here are of great practical value in the captive breeding management of bonobos and offer new opportunities for investigating basic questions of bonobo reproductive biology both in captivity and in the wild.

The Effect of Fission–Fusion Zoo Housing on Hormonal and Behavioral Indicators of Stress in Bornean Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)

“…Accordingly, we applied an excretion lag of 2 d, i.e., we assigned the fGCM value deriving from a fecal sample to the date 2 d before the day of collection. This is consistent with other studies of primate endocrinology (Heistermann et al 1996;Higham et al 2009). We collected most of the fecal samples in the morning and usually carried out behavioral observations between 09:30 h and 18:00 h. For example, if we collected a fecal sample at 10:00 h, the hormone concentrations in this sample corresponded with activity levels an individual showed ca.…”

Studies on Reproductive Endocrinology in Non-human Primates: Application of Non-invasive Methods

“…Because of its close phylogenetic relation to human, great apes; orangutan (Pongo pigmaeus), gorilla (Gorilla gorilla), chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) and bonobo (Pan paniscus) have subsequently attracted considerable interest in a wide range of research areas [1]. The aim of the present study is to determine the levels and patterns of urinary E 1 C, PdG and FSH during menstrual cycle of the great apes, and compare them with those of the human and macaque in order to contribute physiological information toward the evaluation of taxonomic links within the higher primates [9].…”

“…After parturition, FSH increased immediately. Estrone conjugates (E 1 C) and PdG are abundant steroid metabolites excreted into urine in great apes [1] and known to accurately reflect changes in c o r r e s p o n d i n g c i r c u l a t i n g h o r m o n e s i n chimpanzees and other species of great apes, macaques and in humans [21,23]. Therefore, measurements of these hormones in urine can reliably assess endocrine changes during the ovarian cycle.…”

Concentrations of four fecal steroids in wild baboons: short-term storage conditions and consequences for data interpretation

“…In many cases, however, these types of investigations require the detection of subtle differences in hormone concentrations among individuals and through time. When gross patterns are examined, fecal steroid profiles often appear ''noisy,'' with high variation around mean values, in comparison to urine or serum profiles (Boinski et al, 1999;Heistermann et al, 1996;Shideler et al, 1994;Ziegler et al, 1996). Therefore, when more subtle patterns are the target of interest, minimizing this noise is essential in order to detect real biological differences with strong resolution.…”