Permethrin resistance has been reported worldwide and clinical failures to commercial pediculicides containing permethrin have likewise occurred. Permethrin resistance in head lice populations from the U.S. is widespread but is not yet uniform and the level of resistance is relatively low (~4-8 fold). Permethrin-resistant lice are cross-resistant to pyrethrins, PBO-synergized pyrethrins and to DDT. Nix ® , when applied to human hair tufts following manufacture's instructions, did not provide 100% control when assessed by the hair tuft bioassay in conjunction with the in vitro rearing system. Resistance to permethrin is due to knockdown resistance (kdr), which is the result of three point mutations within the α-subunit gene of the voltage-gated sodium channel that causes amino acid substitutions, leading to nerve insensitivity.A three-tiered resistance monitoring system has been established based on molecular resistance detection techniques. Quantitative sequencing (QS) has been developed to predict the kdr allele frequency in head lice at a population level. The speed, simplicity and accuracy of QS made it an ideal candidate for a routine primary resistance monitoring tool to screen a large number of louse populations as an alternative to conventional bioassay. As a secondary monitoring method, real-time PASA (rtPASA) has been devised for a more precise determination of low resistance allele frequencies. To obtain more detailed information on resistance allele zygosity, as well as allele frequency, serial invasive signal amplification reaction (SISAR) has been developed as an individual genotyping method. Our approach of using three tiers of molecular resistance detection should facilitate large-scale routine resistance monitoring of permethrin resistance in head lice using fieldcollected samples.
KeywordsPediculus humanus capitis; Permethrin resistance; Quantitative sequencing; real time PCR amplification of specific alleles; serial invasive signal amplification reaction *Corresponding author. Fax: 413 577 4267, jclark@vasci.umass.edu (J.M. Clark). Publisher's Disclaimer: This is a PDF file of an unedited manuscript that has been accepted for publication. As a service to our customers we are providing this early version of the manuscript. The manuscript will undergo copyediting, typesetting, and review of the resulting proof before it is published in its final citable form. Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain. and Harwood, 1969) and are so closely related that a long debate has occurred about whether they are subspecies or two separate species (Kitter et al., 2003;Yong et al., 2003) Body lice pose a serious public health threat because they transmit several types of bacteria (Rickettsia prowazekii, Borrelia recurrentis and Borrelia recurrentis) that cause human diseases (epidemic typhus, louse-borne relapsing fever, five-day relapsing fever or trench fever) and these diseases ...