Application of design of experiments (DoE) for optimised production of micro- and mesoporous Norway spruce bark activated carbons

Abstract

In this work, Norway spruce (Picea abies (Karst) L.) bark was employed as a precursor to prepare activated carbon using zinc chloride (ZnCl2) as a chemical activator. The purpose of this study was to determine optimal activated carbon (AC) preparation variables by the response surface methodology using a Box–Behnken design (BBD) to obtain AC with high specific surface area (SBET), mesopore surface area (SMESO), and micropore surface area (SMICR). Variables and levels used in the design were pyrolysis temperature (700, 800, and 900 °C), holding time (1, 2, and 3 h), and bark/ZnCl2 impregnation ratio (1, 1.5, and 2). The optimal conditions for achieving the highest SBET were as follows: a pyrolysis temperature of 700 °C, a holding time of 1 h, and a spruce bark/ZnCl2 ratio of 1.5, which yielded an SBET value of 1374 m2 g−1. For maximised mesopore area, the optimal condition was at a pyrolysis temperature of 700 °C, a holding time of 2 h, and a bark/ZnCl2 ratio of 2, which yielded a SMESO area of 1311 m2 g−1, where mesopores (SMESO%) comprised 97.4% of total SBET. Correspondingly, for micropore formation, the highest micropore area was found at a pyrolysis temperature of 800 °C, a holding time of 3 h, and a bark/ZnCl2 ratio of 2, corresponding to 1117 m2 g−1, with 94.3% of the total SBET consisting of micropores (SMICRO%). The bark/ZnCl2 ratio and pyrolysis temperature had the strongest impact on the SBET, while the interaction between temperature and bark/ZnCl2 ratio was the most significant factor for SMESO. For the SMICRO, holding time was the most important factor. In general, the spruce bark AC showed predominantly mesoporous structures. All activated carbons had high carbon and low ash contents. Chemical characterisation indicated that the ACs presented disordered carbon structures with oxygen functional groups on the ACs’ surfaces. Well-developed porosity and a large surface area combined with favourable chemical composition render the activated carbons from Norway spruce bark with interesting physicochemical properties. The ACs were successfully tested to adsorb sodium diclofenac from aqueous solutions showing to be attractive products to use as adsorbents to tackle polluted waters. Graphical abstract

Process Parameters Optimization, Characterization, and Application of KOH-Activated Norway Spruce Bark Graphitic Biochars for Efficient Azo Dye Adsorption

“…Carbon-based materials are commonly used in wastewater treatment, soil amendment, gas emission mitigation in the greenhouse, chemical catalysts, and energy storage systems [1][2][3]. Their several remarkable properties, such as highly developed porosity and internal pore structure, elevated specific surface area, and a high degree of surface chemistry, make carbon-based materials efficient candidates for these applications [3,4]. Lately, several carbon-based materials, such as activated carbons, biochars, graphene, carbon nanotubes, and composites of these materials, have been utilized as adsorbents [1,4,5].…”

“…Their several remarkable properties, such as highly developed porosity and internal pore structure, elevated specific surface area, and a high degree of surface chemistry, make carbon-based materials efficient candidates for these applications [3,4]. Lately, several carbon-based materials, such as activated carbons, biochars, graphene, carbon nanotubes, and composites of these materials, have been utilized as adsorbents [1,4,5]. Activated carbon is the most utilized adsorbent; however, the use of biomass for producing biochar (BC) has led to biochars gaining attention as adsorbents in recent years [1,2].…”

“…Biochars are efficient for use in wastewater treatment, primarily due to their highly porous structure and their numerous chemical functionalities [1][2][3][4]. In wastewater treatment processes, adsorption is preferred due to characteristics of low implementation costs, relative operation simplicity, and minimal generation of by-products [4][5][6][7].…”

“…Pyrolysis is the most common process for producing BCs. However, the efficiency of the pyrolysis process in BC yielding with improved properties is influenced by several factors, such as pyrolysis temperature, holding time, and heating rate [4]. Therefore, the efficient control of these parameters is required to produce BCs with improved textural properties [1,2,4].…”

“…However, the efficiency of the pyrolysis process in BC yielding with improved properties is influenced by several factors, such as pyrolysis temperature, holding time, and heating rate [4]. Therefore, the efficient control of these parameters is required to produce BCs with improved textural properties [1,2,4]. Additionally, the preparation of BC has another critical step, the activation process, which can be either physical or chemical [1,2,5,6].…”