Antipredator strategies of striped skunks in response to cues of aerial and terrestrial predators

Fisher, Kimberly A.; Stankowich, Theodore

doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2018.06.023

Cited by 25 publications

(14 citation statements)

References 48 publications

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“…Noxious defensive anal secretions are also associated with both longitudinal black‐and‐white stripes along the body, and with a white dorsum and black ventrum. As illustrations, longitudinal black‐and‐white striping advertises noxious anal secretions in the striped skunk ( Mephitis mephitis ) (Fisher and Stankowich 2018), whereas the longitudinally striped crested rat ( Lophiomys imhausi ) applies toxic saliva to its body (Kingdon et al. 2012); our results extend this association to the entire Class.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 63%

“…Among mammals, most research on aposematism has hitherto concentrated on black-and-white musteloid carnivores that are renowned for their noxious, defensive anal secretions (Stankowich et al 2011;Fisher and Stankowich 2018). For example, there are experimental data to show that terrestrial carnivores avoid striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis) because of their coloration and shape (Hunter 2009;Fisher and Stankowich 2018), and comparative data to show other musteloids and viverrids are noxious (Ortolani and Caro 1996). Nonetheless, there are a number of other apparently conspicuous mammals (Caro 2009) that are not considered noxious including some flamboyant primates (Bradley and Mundy 2008), black-and-white Malayan tapirs (Tapirus indicus) (Murie 1871), quolls (Dasyurus spp.)…”

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confidence: 99%

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Aposematism in mammals

et al. 2021

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Aposematic coloration is traditionally considered to signal unpalatability or toxicity. In mammals, most research has focused on just one form of defense, namely, noxious anal secretions, and its black‐and‐white advertisement as exemplified by skunks. The original formulation of aposematism, however, encompassed a broader range of morphological, physiological, and behavioral defenses, and there are many mammal species with black‐and‐white contrasting patterns that do not have noxious adaptations. Here, using Bayesian phylogenetic models and data from 1726 terrestrial nonvolant mammals we find that two aspects of conspicuous coloration, black‐and‐white coloration patterns on the head and body, advertise defenses that are morphological (spines, large body size), behavioral (pugnacity), and physiological (anal secretions), as well as being involved with sexual signaling and environmental factors linked to crypsis. Within Carnivora, defensive anal secretions are associated with complex black‐and‐white head patterns and longitudinal black‐and‐white body striping; in primates, larger bodied species exhibit irregular patches of black‐and‐white pelage; and in rodents, pugnacity is linked to sharp countershading and irregular blocks of white and black pelage. We show that black‐and‐white coloration in mammals is multifunctional, that it serves to warn predators of several defenses other than noxious anal secretions, and that aposematism in mammals is not restricted to carnivores.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 63%

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confidence: 99%

Aposematism in mammals

et al. 2021

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“…Besides physical combat, they can also try to daunt and repel the assailant, by intimidating predators with visual and sound displays, or expelling irritating/deterring sprays (e.g. skunks – Fisher & Stankowich, 2018, bombardier beetles – Sugiura, 2018). At the other extreme of the spectrum of antipredator defences, potential prey can adopt passive behaviours such as death feigning (DF, i.e.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Death‐feigning propensity varies within dice snake populations but not with sex or colour morph

et al. 2021

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Once cornered by a predator, prey can try to intimidate the assailant or repel it, with irritating sprays for example. If seized, they may scratch, bite or struggle to cause the predator to release its grip. At the other extreme, they can adopt passive behaviours such as death feigning (DF, i.e. thanatosis). DF is observed widely across the animal kingdom; it usually involves a combination of displays such as immobility, supination, leg‐folding, mouth opening and release of nauseating secretions. When displaying DF, individuals are highly vulnerable and effectively bet on the attitude of the predator; this risky choice is presumably under positive selection. We explored how propensity for DF varies among and within populations of dice snakes (Natrix tessellata). We also considered the influence of sex, body size, reproductive status, colour morph and presence of injuries (N = 2760 snakes; five populations). DF propensity differed among populations, possibly due to variation in local predation pressures. Larger snakes displayed DF more frequently and carried more signs of probable past predation attempts (scars and recent injuries). We found no sex effect on antipredator behaviour. Gravid females used DF less frequently compared with non‐gravid females. Differential expression of DF across populations, body sizes and reproductive status suggests that this complex behaviour was selected to respond to environmental and intrinsic factors. Future studies should explore which elements affect duration, intensity and success of DF in defence against various predators.

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“…Spatial interaction between coyotes and skunks increased significantly with human activity, indicating that humans effectively shielded skunks from coyotes, consistent with HSH. As the smallest carnivore in our study, skunks face antagonism from coyotes ranging from interference competition to direct killing (Fisher and Stankowich 2018). To date, there has been little evidence of skunks spatially avoiding coyotes; thus we present a novel example of how skunk spatial ecology is mediated by human activity (Prange and Gehrt 2007, Ritchie and Johnson 2009).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Living in the concrete jungle: carnivore spatial ecology in urban parks

Gámez

Harris

2021

Ecological Applications

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People and wildlife are living in an increasingly urban world, replete with unprecedented human densities, sprawling built environments, and altered landscapes. Such anthropogenic pressures can affect multiple processes within an ecological community, from spatial patterns to interspecific interactions. We tested two competing hypotheses, human shields vs. human competitors, to characterize how humans affect the carnivore community using multispecies occupancy models. From 2017 to 2020, we conducted the first camera survey of city parks in Detroit, Michigan, and collected spatial occurrence data of the local native carnivore community. Our 12,106–trap night survey captured detection data for coyotes (Canis latrans), red foxes (Vulpes vulpes), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and striped skunks (Mephitis mephitis). Overall occupancy varied across species (Ψcoyote = 0.40, Ψraccoon = 0.54, Ψred fox = 0.19, Ψstriped skunk = 0.09). Contrary to expectations, humans did not significantly affect individual occupancy for these urban carnivores. However, co‐occurrence between coyote and skunk increased with human activity. The observed positive spatial association between an apex and subordinate pair supports the human shield hypothesis. Our findings demonstrate how urban carnivores can exploit spatial refugia and coexist with humans in the cityscape.

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Antipredator strategies of striped skunks in response to cues of aerial and terrestrial predators

Cited by 25 publications

References 48 publications

Aposematism in mammals

Aposematism in mammals

Death‐feigning propensity varies within dice snake populations but not with sex or colour morph

Living in the concrete jungle: carnivore spatial ecology in urban parks

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