Antimicrobial Use, Residues, Resistance and Governance in the Food and Agriculture Sectors, Tanzania

Abstract

All infections are potentially curable as long as the etiological agents are susceptible to antimicrobials. The increased rate at which antimicrobials are becoming ineffective is a global health risk of increasing concern that threatens withdrawal of beneficial antimicrobials for disease control. Increased demand for food of animal origin, in particular eggs, meat and milk has led to intensification and commercial production systems where excessive use and misuse of antimicrobials may prevail. Antimicrobials, handled and used by farmers and animal attendants with no formal education may predispose to incorrect dosages, misuse, incorrect applications and non-adherence to withdrawal periods. A multimethod approach (desk review, field study and interviews) was used. Relevant establishments were also visited. High levels of resistance to penicillin G, chloramphenicol, streptomycin and oxytetracycline have been reported especially for Actinobacter pyogenes, Staphylococcus hyicus, Staphylococcus intermedius and Staphylococcus aureus from dairy cattle with mastitis and in humans. Similar trends were found in poultry where eggs and meat are contaminated with Escherichia coli strains resistant to amoxicillin + clavulanate, sulphamethoxazole and neomycin. An increasing trend of emerging multidrug resistant E. coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella was also found in food animals. An in-crease in methicillin resistant Staphlococcus aureus (MRSA) and extended-spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL) in the livestock sector in Tanzania have been reported. Specific antimicrobials resistant to were ampicillin, augmentin, gentamicin, cotrimoxazole, tetracycline, amoxicillin, ampicillin, gentamicin, streptomycin, erythromycin, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, azithromycin, chloramphenicol, tylosin, erythromycin, cefuroxime, norfloxacin and ciprofloxacin. An in-creased usage of antimicrobials for prophylaxis, anaphylaxis and therapeutics against pathogens and for growth promotion in livestock, aquaculture and crops production were observed. One Health strategic approach is advocated to combat AMR in the food and agriculture sectors in Tanzania. Practical recommendations include a) legislation review and implementation, b) AMU, AMR and AR awareness and advocacy among stakeholders along the value chain, c) strengthening of surveillance and monitoring programs for AMU, AMR and AR, d) enhance development and use of rapid and innovative diagnostic tests and promotion biosecurity principles and e) good husbandry practices. The utilization of this information to improve public health policies and reduce the burden of AMR will be beneficial.

Prevalence of pathogenic bacteria in meat products and their antimicrobial resistance pattern

“…For instance, Escherichia coli strains resistant to amoxicillin + clavulanate, sulphamethoxazole and neomycin, Methicillin Resistant Staphlococcus aureus (MRSA) and Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase (ESBL) is also found in the livestock sector. 8 Similarly, in Nepal, a study observed the presence of 103 gram-negative bacteria isolated from 38 meat samples. 21 Citrobacter species, Salmonella species, Proteus species, E. coli, Pseudomonas species andKlebsiella species were seen, where E. coli showed resistance of Ampicillin followed by Colistin and Polymyxin B.…”

“…For instance, a study has shown the use of oxytetracycline (OTC) to prevent transit fever caused by Pasteurella multocida, in animals during their transportation. 8 A study in Morogoro, 90% of broiler farmers frequently used tetracycline, amprolium, sulphonamides, trimethoprim, neomycin and flumequine in their chicken flocks. 9,10 Similarly, another study has reported the presence of antimicrobials reissued in 76.4% of broiler meat samples.…”

An assessment of knowledge and attitude toward antibiotic misuse by small-scale broiler farmers in Bogor, West Java, Indonesia

“…Farmers may only give antibiotics under the supervision of a veterinarian. Hence, they may not provide antibiotics as feed additives or prevent disease, administer vaccines, promote sound farming practices, and apply biosecurity without professional guidance [6,10,11]. Control efforts will be challenging to implement without various data related to antibiotic use.…”

Unpacking multi-level governance of antimicrobial resistance policies: the case of Guangdong, China

“…Mdegela et al. indicated that the Tanzanian NAP has led to improved coordination of the committee for implementation of activities, better community awareness, development of surveillance sites and successful guideline establishment ( Mdegela et al. , 2021 ).…”