Antimicrobial Resistance Gene Detection Methods for Bacteria in Animal-Based Foods: A Brief Review of Highlights and Advantages

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance is a major public health problem and is mainly due to the indiscriminate use of antimicrobials in human and veterinary medicine. The consumption of animal-based foods can contribute to the transfer of these genes between animal and human bacteria. Resistant and multi-resistant bacteria such as Salmonella spp. and Campylobacter spp. have been detected both in animal-based foods and in production environments such as farms, industries and slaughterhouses. This review aims to compile the techniques for detecting antimicrobial resistance using traditional and molecular methods, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages as well as the effectiveness and confidence of their results.

The Dynamics of the Antimicrobial Resistance Mobilome of Salmonella enterica and Related Enteric Bacteria

“…Due to their rapidity and sensitivity, nucleic acid-based detection methods have played an important role in the elucidation of resistance mechanisms ( Fluit et al, 2001 ). Based on the amplification of target genes, traditional PCR, multiplex PCR, qPCR (real-time PCR), Reverse Transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR), approaches have been developed and widely used in the laboratory to rapidly identify AMR genes ( Galhano et al, 2021 ). DNA microarray and hybridization approaches have also been used to simultaneously detect a large number different AMR genes in a short time.…”

“…DNA microarray and hybridization approaches have also been used to simultaneously detect a large number different AMR genes in a short time. Microarrays for resistance detection in both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria have been developed ( Perreten et al, 2005 ; Card et al, 2013 ; Galhano et al, 2021 ). Microarray detection methods have been largely replaced by whole-genome sequencing (WGS) approaches that have become widely used and effective tools in detection of AMR genes ( Galhano et al, 2021 ).…”

“…Microarrays for resistance detection in both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria have been developed ( Perreten et al, 2005 ; Card et al, 2013 ; Galhano et al, 2021 ). Microarray detection methods have been largely replaced by whole-genome sequencing (WGS) approaches that have become widely used and effective tools in detection of AMR genes ( Galhano et al, 2021 ). To detect AMR genes in WGS data, several AMR gene databases, such as ARG-ANNOT (Antibiotic Resistance Gene-ANNOTation), RGI/CARD (Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database), NCBI-AMRFinder, and PointFinder have been developed to identify AMR genes in the WGS contigs ( Gupta et al, 2014 ; Zankari et al, 2017 ; Alcock et al, 2020 ; Feldgarden et al, 2021 ).…”

“…To detect AMR genes in WGS data, several AMR gene databases, such as ARG-ANNOT (Antibiotic Resistance Gene-ANNOTation), RGI/CARD (Comprehensive Antibiotic Resistance Database), NCBI-AMRFinder, and PointFinder have been developed to identify AMR genes in the WGS contigs ( Gupta et al, 2014 ; Zankari et al, 2017 ; Alcock et al, 2020 ; Feldgarden et al, 2021 ). WGS has been proven to be an effective technique to detect AMR genes within bacteria such as Salmonella ( Galhano et al, 2021 ).…”

Smartphone-Operated Affordable PCR Thermal Cycler for the Detection of Antimicrobial Resistant Bacterial Genes

“…AMR occurs when microbes such as bacteria, virus, fungi, and parasites change over time and do not respond to antimicrobial drugs [1]. Resistant and multi-resistant bacteria have been detected in foods, farms, industries, slaughterhouses [2].…”