Antigenic shift in myxoviruses

Rg, Webster; Hinshaw, Virginia S.; Wj, Bean

doi:10.1007/bf02121302

Cited by 8 publications

(8 citation statements)

References 24 publications

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“…This is not surprising since adult tissues are not susceptible in organ culture (186,240), and even if virus is swallowed (34), infection would probably be prevented by the acid lability of influenza virus (100, 232), i.e., stomach acid provides a barrier. Avian influenza viruses which are more stable than human viruses appear to replicate in the alimentary tract of birds (254).…”

Section: W Potter Personal Communication)mentioning

confidence: 99%

Pathogenicity of influenza virus.

Sweet¹,

Smith²

1980

Microbiological Reviews

114

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Section: W Potter Personal Communication)mentioning

confidence: 99%

Pathogenicity of influenza virus.

Sweet¹,

Smith²

1980

Microbiological Reviews

114

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

“…It was found that AIVs persist viably in freshwater, brackish water, and sea water, in converse correlation with temperature and salinity, for up to several months, usually [57–59]. Considerably extended persistence, up to 490 days, was estimated for an ordinary avian influenza strain (H2N4) isolated from a teal, in water at temperature 4°C, pH 7.2, and salinity 0 ppt [60, 61].…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Persistence of Avian Influenza Viruses in Various Artificially Frozen Environmental Water Types

Shoham

Alam

Ruenphet

et al. 2012

Influenza Research and Treatment

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Background. This study investigates the viable persistence of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) in various types of artificially frozen environmental water and evaluates the feasibility of similar occurrence taking place in nature, and allowing for prolonged abiotic virus survival, with subsequent biotic viral recirculation. Methods. Fresh, brackish, and salty water, taken in Japan from aquatic biotopes regularly visited by migratory waterfowl, were seeded with AIVs. We monthly monitored the viability of the seeded viruses in the frozen state at −20°C and −30°C, for 12 months. We also monitored virus viability following repeatedly induced freezing and thawing. Results. The viruses exhibited considerable viable persistence all along that period of time, as well as during freezing-thawing cycles. Appreciable, yet noncrucial variances were observed in relation to some of the parameters examined. Conclusions. As typical waterborne pathogens of numerous northerly aquatic birds, AIVs are innately adapted to both the body temperature of their hosts (40°C to 42°C) and, presumably, to subzero temperatures of frozen lakes (down to −54°C in parts of Siberia) occupied and virus-seeded by subclinically infected birds, prior to freezing. Marked cryostability of AIVs appears to be evident. Preservation in environmental ice has significant ecophylogenetic and epidemiological implications, potentially, and could account for various unexplained phenomena.

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“…Influenza A viruses are sometimes transmitted from one sort of host to another, and hybridism by genetic reassortment between variants occurs readily in the natural setting (Webster, Hinshaw & Bean, 1977;Desselberger et al 1978;Yamane et al 1978;Bean, Cox & Kendal, 1980). Nevertheless, one should not underestimate the degree to which some variants of influenza A virus have become specifically adapted to particular host species (e.g.…”

Section: Modes Of Parasitism By Influenza a Virusesmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In summary, the natural genofond of influenza A virus genetic material in nonhuman hosts provides a reservoir from which transmissions to man can and do occasionally occur, most often with HswlNl and H3N2 strains from the domestic pig (Webster, Hinshaw & Bean, 1977). Adaptation of such viruses to survival in the human species and the rapid achievement of global prevalence in the human population has not been recorded.…”

Section: Protracted Infection and DI Particlesmentioning

confidence: 99%

A new concept of the epidemic process of influenza A virus

Hope-Simpson

Golubev

1987

Epidemiol. Infect.

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SUMMARYInfluenza A virus was discovered in 1933, and since then four major variants have caused all the epidemies of human influenza A. Each had an era of solo world prevalence until 1977 as follows: H0N1 (old style) strains until 1946. H1N1 (old style) strains until 1957, H2N2 strains until 1968. then H3N2 strains, which were joined in 1977 by a renewed prevalence of H1N1 (old style) strains.Serological studies show that H2N2 strains probably had had a previous era of world prevalence during the last quarter of the nineteenth century, and had then been replaced by H3N2 strains from about 1900 to 1918. From about 1907 the H3N2 strains had been joined, as now. by H1N1 (old style) strains until both had been replaced in 1918 by a fifth major variant closely related to swine influenza virus A/Hswine1N1 (old style), which had then had an era of solo world prevalence in mankind until about 1929. when it had been replaced by the H0N1 strains that were first isolated in 1933.Eras of prevalence of a major variant have usually been initiated by a severe pandemic followed at intervals of a year or two by successive epidemics in each of which the nature of the virus is usually a little changed (antigenic drift), but not enough to permit frequent recurrent infections during the same era. Changes of major variant (antigenic shift) are large enough to permit reinfection. At both major and minor changes the strains of the previous variant tend to disappear and to be replaced within a single season, worldwide in the case of a major variant, or in the area of prevalence of a previous minor variant.Pandemics, epidemics and antigenic variations all occur seasonally, and influenza and its viruses virtually disappear from the population of any locality between epidemics, an interval of many consecutive months. A global view, however, shows influenza continually present in the world population, progressing each year south and then north, thus crossing the equator twice yearly around the equinoxes, the tropical monsoon periods. Influenza arrives in the temperate latitudes in the colder months, about 6 months separating its arrival in the two hemispheres.None of this behaviour is explained by the current concept that the virus is surviving like measles virus by direct spread from the sick providing endless chains of human influenza A. A number of other aspects of the human host influenza A virus relationship encountered in household outbreaks are among the list of 20 difficulties that are inexplicable by the current concept of direct spread.Alternative concepts have usually been designed to counter particular difficulties and are incompatible with other features of influenzal behaviour in mankind. The new concept detailed in the appendix provides simple explanations for most if not all of the difficulties. It proposes that influenza A virus cannot normally be transmitted during the illness because it too rapidly becomes non-infectious in a mode of persistence or latency in the human host. Many months or a year or two later it is reactivated by a seasonally mediated stimulus which, like all seasonal phenomena, is ultimately dependent on variations in solar radiation caused by the tilt of the plane of earth's rotation in relation to that of its circumsolar orbit. The carriers, who are always widely seeded throughout the world population, become briefly infectious and their non-immune companions, if infected, comprise the whole of the next epidemic. The reactivated virus particles must encounter the immunity they have engendered in the carrier, thus allowing minor mutants an advantage over virions identical with the parent virus, and so favouring antigenic drift and automatic disappearance of predecessor and prompt seasonal replacement. Antigenic shift and recycling of major variants may also be explained by virus latency in the human host.

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Antigenic shift in myxoviruses

Cited by 8 publications

References 24 publications

Pathogenicity of influenza virus.

Pathogenicity of influenza virus.

Persistence of Avian Influenza Viruses in Various Artificially Frozen Environmental Water Types

A new concept of the epidemic process of influenza A virus

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