Anticipatory and consummatory effects of (hedonic) chocolate intake are associated with increased circulating levels of the orexigenic peptide ghrelin and endocannabinoids in obese adults

Abstract

BackgroundHedonic hunger refers to consumption of food just for pleasure and not to maintain energy homeostasis. Recently, consumption of food for pleasure was reported to be associated with increased circulating levels of both the orexigenic peptide ghrelin and the endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol (2-AG) in normal-weight subjects. To date, the effects of hedonic hunger, and in particular of chocolate craving, on these mediators in obese subjects are still unknown.MethodsTo explore the role of some gastrointestinal orexigenic and anorexigenic peptides and endocannabinoids (and some related congeners) in chocolate consumption, we measured changes in circulating levels of ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1), peptide YY (PYY), anandamide (AEA), 2-AG, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), and oleoylethanolamide (OEA) in 10 satiated severely obese subjects after consumption of chocolate and, on a separate day, of a non-palatable isocaloric food with the same bromatologic composition. Evaluation of hunger and satiety was also performed by visual analogic scale.ResultsThe anticipatory phase and the consumption of food for pleasure were associated with increased circulating levels of ghrelin, AEA, 2-AG, and OEA. In contrast, the levels of GLP-1, PYY, and PEA did not differ before and after the exposure/ingestion of either chocolate or non-palatable foods. Hunger and satiety were higher and lower, respectively, in the hedonic session than in the non-palatable one.ConclusionsWhen motivation to eat is generated by exposure to, and consumption of, chocolate a peripheral activation of specific endogenous rewarding chemical signals, including ghrelin, AEA, and 2-AG, is observed in obese subjects. Although preliminary, these findings predict the effectiveness of ghrelin and endocannabinoid antagonists in the treatment of obesity.

Hedonic eating in Prader–Willi syndrome is associated with blunted PYY secretion

“…Finally, in the present study the decline of circulating levels of AEA after ingestion of palatable or non-palatable food, already described by Rigamonti et al [13] in patients with essential morbid obesity, might be due to circadian changes in the levels of this compound, previously demonstrated in the rat brain [41]. Alternatively, since PWS patients were still insulin-responsive, this finding is more likely due to post-prandial insulin-induced inhibition of plasma AEA levels, already observed by Di Marzo et al [42].…”

Integration of homeostatic signaling and food reward processing in the human brain

“…Furthermore, in ghrelin receptor-deficient mice, cue potentiated feeding is disrupted and meal anticipatory behavior is reduced (63,64), highlighting the importance of ghrelin signaling for feeding driven by external food-related cues (65), which has also been observed in individuals with obesity (39). Since ghrelin influenced brain reward processing in the sated state, our results add to the notion of ghrelin as an important contributor to hedonic eating where food is consumed due to its rewarding properties and not to maintain energy homeostasis (38).…”

“…Previous studies found that postprandial reductions in ghrelin are associated with reduced signaling in reward-related areas of the brain (37). Furthermore, during satiety, ghrelin levels have been found to be related to hedonic eating, both in normal weight (38) as well as obese individuals (39), which points to a role of ghrelin in the "consumption of food for pleasure" when sated (40).…”

The Appetite−Suppressant and GLP-1-Stimulating Effects of Whey Proteins in Obese Subjects are Associated with Increased Circulating Levels of Specific Amino Acids

“…So far, to the best of our knowledge, no one has identified the specific amino acids that are associated with suppression of appetite and, parallelly, with stimulation of gastrointestinal anorexigenic peptides when whey proteins are administered to obese subjects who present an alteration of the central and peripheral regulation of food intake as compared to the normal-weight counterparts [21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. Such information may be useful to produce a nutraceutical/pharmacological/biotechnological mix of amino acids to include in the dietetic regimen of a body weight reduction program (BWRP) [2].…”