“…Besides the use of antibiotics, evidence from the past few years clearly presents a complicated picture of AR emergence, development, dissemination, and persistence, with multiple risk factors, some of which have yet to be recognized (10,11,(23)(24)(25)(26)(27)(28). By shifting the investigation and mitigation scope from limited numbers of pathogens to commensal populations and microbial ecosystems, we were able to reveal the contribution of the food chain as a main avenue in transmitting AR to humans (4,12,21,29) and to discover the importance of the host GI tract in the amplification, dissemination, and circulation of AR in the global ecosystem, even without direct exposure to antibiotics (16,26,30,31).…”