Anti-predator strategies of free-ranging Campbell's monkeys

Abstract

SummaryHabitat type, predation pressure and reproductive interests are all thought to determine the anti-predator behaviour of non-primates, but only few systematic studies exist. Here, we experimentally elicited anti-predator behaviour in six different groups of forest-living Campbell's monkeys, using visual and acoustic models of leopards, crowned eagles, and snakes. Individuals produced a variety of anti-predator behaviours, depending on the type of predator and whether or not it was visible. Adult males generally behaved conspicuously, either by attacking eagles or producing threat behaviours at a distance to leopards. Adult females remained cryptic to eagles, but joined their male in approaching leopards. To snakes, both males and females responded strongly to familiar Gaboon vipers, but far less to unfamiliar black mambas. Finally, if a predator could only be heard, both males and females produced fewer alarm calls and often changed their vertical position in the canopy (upwards for leopards; downwards for eagles), despite all predator vocalisations being presented from the ground. We concluded that Campbell's monkeys display sex-specific anti-predator behaviours, which are largely driven by the predators' hunting techniques, mode of predator detection and the forest habitat structure.

Production and perception of situationally variable alarm calls in wild tufted capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella nigritus)

“…However, in the 478 current study apparent attempts to locate the predator were a far more common response to 479 playbacks than were escape reactions, indicating that the ability to quickly locate a predator may 480 also be important (Kirchhof & Hammerschmidt 2006; see also Ouattara et al 2009c for 481 additional evidence that different predator types favor distinct non-escape reactions in forest 482 primates). The low rate of escape reactions in the current study may be explained by the 483 extremely short distances in which raptors, felids, and snakes are detected in the study population 484 (Janson 2007).…”

Why Mob? Reassessing the Costs and Benefits of Primate Predator Harassment

“…Data from long-term field studies could shed light on this question, but the potential impact of observer presence on predator encounter rates remains a concern. Studies that present wild primates with models of predators provide an alternative for investigating how primates modify their behavior in response to different kinds of threats [Fichtel et al, 2005;Fichtel, 2007;Wheeler, 2008;Ouattara et al, 2009;Rahlfs and Fichtel, 2010]. For example, wild capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella) mobbed ocelot and snake models more frequently than raptor models: ocelot in 15/20 (75%) experiments; viper in 9/13 (69%) experiments; raptor in 5/22 (23%) experiments [Wheeler, 2008].…”

Risky Business? Lethal Attack by a Jaguar Sheds Light on the Costs of Predator Mobbing for Capuchins (Cebus capucinus)

“…Predators such as large cats continue to pose a significant threat to terrestrial primates even after they have been discovered, and are known to at least occasionally capture individuals that mob them (Cowlishaw 1994). However, mobbing mammalian predators is thought to be less risky for forest-living primates, because they can escape to safety in the trees (Hart 2000;Ouattara et al 2009). …”