Anti-Inflammatory Potential of n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Enriched Hen Eggs Consumption in Improving Microvascular Endothelial Function of Healthy Individuals—Clinical Trial

Abstract

The effects of consumption of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) enriched hen eggs on endothelium-dependent and endothelium-independent vasodilation in microcirculation, and on endothelial activation and inflammation were determined in young healthy individuals. Control group (N = 21) ate three regular hen eggs/daily (249 mg n-3 PUFAs/day), and n-3 PUFAs group (N = 19) ate three n-3 PUFAs enriched hen eggs/daily (1053 g n-3 PUFAs/day) for 3 weeks. Skin microvascular blood flow in response to iontophoresis of acetylcholine (AChID; endothelium-dependent) and sodium nitroprusside (SNPID; endothelium-independent) was assessed by laser Doppler flowmetry. Blood pressure (BP), body composition, body fluid status, serum lipid and free fatty acids profile, and inflammatory and endothelial activation markers were measured before and after respective dietary protocol. Results: Serum n-3 PUFAs concentration significantly increased, AChID significantly improved, and SNPID remained unchanged in n-3 PUFAs group, while none was changed in Control group. Interferon-γ (pro-inflammatory) significantly decreased and interleukin-10 (anti-inflammatory) significantly increased in n-3 PUFAs. BP, fat free mass, and total body water significantly decreased, while fat mass, interleukin-17A (pro-inflammatory), interleukin-10 and vascular endothelial growth factor A significantly increased in the Control group. Other measured parameters remained unchanged in both groups. Favorable anti-inflammatory properties of n-3 PUFAs consumption potentially contribute to the improvement of microvascular endothelium-dependent vasodilation in healthy individuals.

Leukocyte Activation and Antioxidative Defense Are Interrelated and Moderately Modified by n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid-Enriched Eggs Consumption—Double-Blind Controlled Randomized Clinical Study

“…n-3 PUFA-enriched hen eggs and the regular eggs were produced and provided by the Faculty of Agrobiotechnical Sciences, University of Osijek, who developed and standardized the production protocols. In short, the common sunflower oil in laying hen feeding mixtures was replaced by a mixture of fish (1.33%), linseed (1.33%), rapeseed (1.33%), and soybean (1%) oil [ 7 ]. The composition of fatty acids in the feeding mixture used for the production of regular and n-3 PUFA-enriched eggs is shown in Table 1 .…”

“…As a result of changing the fatty acid content in the feeding mixture, hen eggs reduced n-6 PUFAs and increased n-3 PUFA concentration with more favorable n-6 / n-3 PUFAs ratio ( Table 1 ). The fatty acid profile of hens’ feeding mixture and the edible parts of eggs was determined according to the method of Csapo et al [ 17 ], and the procedure was described in detail in our previously published paper [ 7 ]. Gas chromatography was performed on a Bruker 430-GC apparatus (Billerica, MA, USA), equipped with a FAMEWAX (RESTEK, Bellefonte, PA, USA) type capillary column (30 m × 0.32 mm internal diameter, 0.25-μm film) and flame ionization detector.…”

“…These changes occur by n-3 PUFAs modulation of synthesis of endothelium-derived vasoactive mediators (e.g., NO, COX, and/or CYP450 metabolites), modulation of oxidative stress level, endothelial activation, endothelium-leukocyte interaction, and subsequent endothelial inflammation [ 1 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Previously, we demonstrated the significant beneficiary effect of consumption of n-3 PUFA-enriched hen eggs on microvascular endothelium-dependent reactivity, even in young healthy individuals [ 7 ]. These beneficiary effects were possibly underlined by modulation of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors that can influence microvascular reactivity and are produced from n-3 PUFAs [ 7 ].…”

“…Previously, we demonstrated the significant beneficiary effect of consumption of n-3 PUFA-enriched hen eggs on microvascular endothelium-dependent reactivity, even in young healthy individuals [ 7 ]. These beneficiary effects were possibly underlined by modulation of pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory factors that can influence microvascular reactivity and are produced from n-3 PUFAs [ 7 ].…”

“…For example, in patients with increased CV risk or existing CV disease, these consumed amounts were 1 g to 3.7 g of EPA and/or DHA for 6 to 17 weeks [ 13 , 14 , 15 , 16 ]. In our previous studies, consumed doses of n-3 PUFAs in enriched eggs were 770 and 1051 mg/day for 21 days, respectively [ 7 , 17 ]. Since such high intake of eggs or supplements is not likely in real-life circumstances, the present study aimed to establish the threshold dose for endothelial function modulation and to assess the markers of leukocyte activation and oxidative status (such as biochemical parameters of lipid peroxidation and anti-oxidative enzymes activity) in a randomized, double-blind, controlled prospective study in young healthy participants of both sexes.…”