Anesthetic protocols for urodynamic studies of the lower urinary tract in small rodents—A systematic review

Abstract

Urodynamic studies in rats and mice are broadly used to examine pathomechnisms of disease and identify and test therapeutic targets. This review aims to highlight the effects of the anesthetics on the lower urinary tract function and seeks to identify protocols that allow recovery from anesthesia and repeated measurements while preserving the function which is being studied. All studies published in English language, which compared the data obtained under various types of anesthesia and the urodynamics performed in awake animals were included. It appears that urethane, an anesthetic recommended extensively for the investigation of lower urinary tract function, is appropriate for acute urodynamic studies only. Major advantages of urethane are its stability and ability to preserve the micturition reflex. Due to its toxicity and carcinogenicity, urethane anesthesia should not be used for recovery procedures. This review evaluated available alternatives including propofol, isoflurane and combinations of urethane, ketamine/xylazine, ketamine/medetomidine, and/or fentanyl/fluanisone/midazolam. Different effects have been demonstrated among these drugs on the urinary bladder, the urethral sphincter, as well as on their neuroregulation. The lowest incidence of adverse effects was observed with the use of a combination of ketamine and xylazine. Although the variations in the reviewed study protocols represent a limitation, we believe that this summary will help in standardizing and optimizing future experiments.

Statin administration ameliorates ischemia‐induced overactive bladder with improvement of blood flow and anti‐inflammatory effects in rats

“…Then, the distal side was fixed under the posterior neck via the subcutis, and the lower abdomen was sutured. Three days after creation of the cystostomy, cystometric studies were performed under awake conditions to minimize the effect of isoflurane anesthesia 13 on lower urinary tract functions following the previous report 14 . The bladder catheter was connected to a pressure transducer (DX‐100, Nihon Koden) and a syringe pump (TE‐331, Terumo) via a three‐way valve.…”

Assessing Neurogenic Lower Urinary Tract Dysfunction after Spinal Cord Injury: Animal Models in Preclinical Neuro-Urology Research

“…Anesthetic agents regularly used in animal cystometry before and after SCI include urethane [ 28 ], isoflurane [ 29 , 30 ], dexmedetomidine [ 31 ], ketamine [ 32 , 33 ], and others. Anesthetic agents, particularly inhalants, have been shown to affect LUT function by repressing the micturition reflex [ 34 ]. In contrast, conscious preparations avoid the use of anesthetics but often require physical restraint, which has also been shown to alter voiding function and reduce voided volumes [ 35 , 36 ].…”

“…Experiments have been performed in anesthetized and conscious conditions. Anesthetic agents such as urethane, ketamine/xylazine, propofol, isofuorane and pentobarbital have all been shown to influence rodent LUT function by varying degrees [ 34 ]. Most commonly, higher doses of agents such as propofol and pentobarbital can suppress voiding reflexes, leading to considerable differences in bladder capacity, detrusor contraction pressure, voiding efficiency, and residual volumes between studies [ 34 , 171 ].…”

“…Anesthetic agents such as urethane, ketamine/xylazine, propofol, isofuorane and pentobarbital have all been shown to influence rodent LUT function by varying degrees [ 34 ]. Most commonly, higher doses of agents such as propofol and pentobarbital can suppress voiding reflexes, leading to considerable differences in bladder capacity, detrusor contraction pressure, voiding efficiency, and residual volumes between studies [ 34 , 171 ]. Isofluorane is often used as an anesthetic agent during animal cystometry as it is easy to administer, has minimal side effects, and permits a fast recovery; however, it has been reported to suppress bladder contractions with increased inter-contraction intervals in rats [ 172 ].…”

Modern Aspects in Anesthesia of Small Laboratory Animals

“…Комбинации «Кетамин» + «Ксила» могут влиять на гемодинамику головного мозга, вызывая снижение мозгового кровотока и влияя на оксигенацию мозга, что может иметь смешанные эффекты при визуализации перфузии [28; 29]. Кроме того, комбинация «Кетамина» с «Ксилой» оказывает существенное влияние на сердечно-сосудистую систему, проявляясь низкой частотой пульса и гипотензией [29].…”