“…Since then, the rail industry has faced a systemic failure in the timetable introduction of 2018 (Topham, 2018), of which poor-quality information was a significant factor (ORR, 2018). This has been followed by the seismic impact of COVID-19 (Vickerman, 2021;Zhang, Hayashi & Frank, 2021;Preston & Bickel, 2020). Following the aftermath of both events, the recent William-Shapps Plan for Rail (Department for Transport & Williams Rail Review, 2021) has introduced a series of rail reforms that aims to improve passenger experience, encourage third-party innovation, and possibly most importantly -replace the rail franchising system in Great Britain, which has existed since 1996.…”