Anatomy of the Cape Cod Oral Rabies Vaccination Program

Abstract

Rabies remains a globally significant zoonotic disease, but rabies control is achievable under certain circumstances.Canine rabies has been eliminated from the U.S.; however, approximately 55,000 humans die annually worldwide from the disease. In the U.S., economic losses continue to be substantial and the risk to humans and domestic animals has not been eliminated. As an example of the complexity of rabies management, we describe a local rabies control program and efforts to restore Cape Cod, MA to terrestrial rabies-free status, after a 2004 oral rabies vaccination (ORV) barrier breach following 10 years of rabies-free status. The emergence of raccoon rabies in southeastern New England in 1992 prompted the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the Tufts Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, and the Massachusetts Department of Public Health to begin an ORV program to reduce the occurrence of carnivore rabies in an area directly adjacent to the Cape Cod Canal. In 2001, USDA APHIS Wildlife Services began full-time collaboration on the Cape Cod Oral Rabies Vaccination Program (CCORVP) as part of national wildlife rabies control efforts. The primary objective of the CCORVP was to use ORV in tandem with the physical barrier created by the Canal to prevent the spread of rabies to peninsular Cape Cod, a heavily-populated tourist destination southeast of Boston. After an increase in rabies cases within the traditional Cape Cod ORV zone, ORV bait distribution efforts were modified to reduce the risk of rabies spread onto the Cape. In spite of these modifications, raccoon rabies was detected for the first time on peninsular Cape Cod in March 2004. A trap-vaccinate-release campaign, removal of suspect raccoons and skunks, and expanded ORV efforts were unsuccessful in preventing the spread of the virus. Rabies surveillance became the priority of the Cape Cod Rabies Task Force. In 2006, rabies was finally detected at the eastern extremity of the peninsula. In this paper, we summarize ORV efforts, explore possible causes for the spread of raccoon rabies onto the Cape, summarize several small-scale Cape Cod rabies research projects, and suggest a 5-year plan for future Cape Cod rabies controls efforts.

Management and modeling approaches for controlling raccoon rabies: The road to elimination

“…Moving forward with raccoon rabies elimination will require collaboration and strategic planning among experts from a variety of disciplines with a focus on multiple control methods, particularly in highly urbanized landscapes, where bait delivery can be especially challenging and raccoon densities are high [ 24 ]. Bait stations containing ORV baits in highly urban areas, such as in New York and Cape Cod, might help to deliver baits to raccoons, while limiting bait–human contact risks [ 147 , 148 ]. The potential future broad-scale application of ONRAB in the US is a promising addition to ORV programs and the rabies management toolbox.…”

Progress towards Bait Station Integration into Oral Rabies Vaccination Programs in the United States: Field Trials in Massachusetts and Florida

“…A WS trap-vaccinate-release campaign plus expanded ORV efforts did not prevent the further spread of raccoon rabies. Rabies surveillance on Cape Cod became a high priority [ 10 , 11 ], with the aim of delineating the epizootic front to begin ORV and define priority areas for trap-vaccinate-release efforts to prevent further spread. However, in 2006, raccoon rabies was detected at the farthest tip of Cape Cod, in Provincetown.…”

Evaluation of Bait Station Density for Oral Rabies Vaccination of Raccoons in Urban and Rural Habitats in Florida

“…Bait stations for distribution of oral rabies vaccine baits have become an increasingly important bait delivery method in urban areas where aerial and vehicle-based (or hand) vaccine bait delivery is hampered by high human and pet densities, and in rural areas where raccoon densities are low, but target species may be concentrated in smaller localized populations, reducing the need to widely broadcast vaccine baits. Bait station use began in New York in 2003, and in key locations in Massachusetts in 2006 [ 13 , 14 ], with important questions regarding optimal design and effectiveness left unanswered. Although bait station design and deployment has been evaluated, including modification to reduce non-target uptake, especially by opossums ( Didelphis virginiana ), future design improvements and optimized strategies for their use require additional study [ 13 , 15 , 16 ].…”