Anatomists' uses of human skeletons: Ethical issues associated with the India bone trade and anonymized archival collections

Abstract

Concerns have recently been expressed about the continuing availability of human bones from India, obtained originally for educational purposes but lacking the requisite informed consent that would be expected today. More generally, a broader claim is being made, namely, that the practice of using any unconsented bones in educational settings is unethical and should cease. These calls, in turn, raise broader issues regarding the availability of anonymous archival collections in anatomy museums. Although this debate centers on undergraduate anatomy teaching, much anthropological research utilizes human remains of past populations for which there can have been no consent. A suggested alternative for undergraduate teaching is the use of 3D images of human bones, rather than the bones themselves. In addressing these issues, the background to the India bone trade is assessed, and the year 1985 is pinpointed as having significant ethical weight. The cultural and ethical interests inherent in studying archival anonymous skeletal material are weighed against indiscriminate reburial. Although any use of unconsented material represents ethical compromise, account should be taken of changing ethical expectations with time. It is concluded that: there is no justification for repatriation or disposal of all bones for which specific informed consent has not been obtained; continued use of anonymous archival human bones in a professional setting is acceptable, even in the absence of informed consent, with the proviso that there are no culturally relevant groups seeking repatriation; the continued existence of bones in long‐standing private collections cannot be justified since it amounts to long‐term storage with no identified goals; the notion that 3D images are an ethically superior alternative to actual human bones is unsustainable, since there is an intimate connection between the bones and the 3D images.

From Data to Design: Constructing Scapula and Hip Bone Through Online Datasets, Open-Source Software and 3D Printers

“…3D-printed anatomical models were created to study frogs for anatomy education after 3D scanning and printing skeletal tissues [ 20 ]. As per the ethical concern and inadequacy that appeared in the various research articles, accurate bone in an adequate number can be produced using 3D printing bone models; it is an ethically potential solution for medical students [ 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 ]. Many studies have already mentioned the utility of 3D printed models for anatomy education for improving student engagement and skeletal tissue for medical and biology education [ 3 , 20 , 21 ].…”

“…Since 1985, the Indian government has imposed export prohibitions following a thorough analysis of the illegal bone trade [ 5 ]. The legal market fails to meet the demand, resulting in the use of illicit sources [ 6 ]. Even medical colleges in India have bone sets, and they are inadequate for a large number of students [ 2 ].…”

“…Even medical colleges in India have bone sets, and they are inadequate for a large number of students [ 2 ]. To address the ethical concerns and inadequacy of human bone, alternatives such as three-dimensional (3D) images, plastic models and wooden skull models have been explored as substitutes for human bones in teaching anatomy [ 6 - 8 ]. Plaster-of-Paris, or resin bone models that are sold in the market, are not as detailed as those of real bones [ 9 ].…”

Macro and micro ethics in fetal and embryological collections: Exploring the paradigms of informed consent among Australian education‐focused stakeholders

“…This notion is akin to what has been proposed for skeletal collections. 46 It is likely that the participants perceived learning from these remains as good, as the majority of participants (88.9%) have experience with learning from human bodies themselves. This is corroborated by studies reporting a preference for learning from human bodies by both academic and students of anatomy.…”

Corpse identification in mass disasters and other violence: the ethical challenges of a humanitarian approach

“…This introduces new questions about ethics [ 21 ], including whether presenting or widely sharing (may be different Country Authorities) images of remains also could represent an indignity situation in relation to how these images are managed [ 22 ]. Some have argued that showing the dead evokes empathy and mobilizes political will toward the dead and their families [ 23 ].…”