Analysis of Frankincense in Archaeological Samples by Gas Chromatography‐Mass Spectrometry

Abstract

Summary -Four archaeological samples, unearthed from Qana in Yemen were analysed by analytical technique, currently applied in the field of petroleum geochemistry, and by gas chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer (GC-MS). Sample no 1286 comes from a burned warehouse and samples no 964, 963 and 962 from the central sanctuary. These specimens were probably exposed to a heating source. In each case olibanum resin was identified according to the presence of their chemical markers corresponding to α-, β-boswellic and lupeolic acids (3α-hydroxyolean-12-en-24-oic, 3α-hydroxy-urs-12-en-24-oic and 3α-hydroxy-lup-20(29)en-24-oic acids) and their respective O-acetyled derivatives (3α-O-acetyl -olean-12-en-24-oic, 3α-O-acetyl-urs-12-en-24-oic and 3-O-acetyl-lup-20(29)-en-24-oic acids). Concerning the thermal degradation state of samples, the GC-MS results are in agreement with the geochemical ones. Sample no 1286 and 964 correspond to ageing incense which has not undergone any heating action and are consequently relatively well preserved. Lastly, samples no 963 and 962 are thermally degraded resins and their gross composition data permits to conclude that sample no 963 is only partially burnt while sample no 962 has been much more degraded.

‘Choicest unguents’: molecular evidence for the use of resinous plant exudates in late Roman mortuary rites in Britain

“…Despite the close correspondence in the compounds identified, their relative abundances differed considerably as the archaeological samples contained only low levels of the boswellic acids, none of their O-acetyl oxidation products and an abundance of neutral derivatives. This reduction in acid moieties can occur as a result of changes wrought by pyrolysis (Mathe et al, 2007) although more research is required regarding the impact of natural taphonomic factors on this gum-resin before any such claim can be made here.…”

“…Nonetheless, despite extensive research, molecular confirmation of the use of frankincense has been scarce. Only a small number of studies have previously obtained positive results from a cosmetic unguent from Egypt (Mathe et al, 2004) and probable incense fragments from Nubia (Evershed et al, 1997) (Mathe et al, 2007;Regert et al, 2008). These regions all lie within the known geographical and commercial distribution of frankincense in antiquity.…”

Holy Smoke in Medieval Funerary Rites: Chemical Fingerprints of Frankincense in Southern Belgian Incense Burners

“…To date, the resin has been demonstrated in remains from sites in Egypt [20]–[22], Yemen [19], [23], [24] and France [25]. These cases, however, represent analyses of resin-like residues.…”

Volatile Compounds in Oleo-gum Resin of Socotran Species of Burseraceae

“…Similarly, in Commiphora, more than 300 chemical compounds have been found (Shen, et al, 2012). These analyses have mostly been done on samples that were not freshly collected, mostly including materials obtained commercially (AlSaidi, et al, 2012;Paul, et al, 2012;Van Vuuren, et al, 2010;Shah, et al, 2008;Frank, et al, 2006;Pozharitskaya, et al, 2006;Mathe, et al, 2004;Culioli, et al, 2003), and often even from archaeological materials (Mathe, et al, 2007;Modugno, et al, 2006;Hamm, et al, 2004;Mathe, et al, 2004;Van Bergen, et al, 1997).…”

“…The subject of study are only the thermal degradation after burning (Mathe, et al, 2007) and the products of degradation in archeological samples (Mathe, et al, 2004;Modugno, et al, 2006).…”