Analysis of commercially available snake antivenoms reveals high contents of endotoxins in some products

Effect of Seaweed-Derived Fucoidans from Undaria pinnatifida and Fucus vesiculosus on Coagulant, Proteolytic, and Phospholipase A2 Activities of Snake Bothrops jararaca, B. jararacussu, and B. neuwiedi Venom

“…Antivenoms do not neutralize such toxic activities caused by Bothropic venoms [ 41 ] or other vipers [ 42 ] and may even induce hypersensitive reactions in patients [ 14 ]. Thus, molecules able to neutralize the toxic activities of snake venoms are required to improve the recovery of victims of SBE or to prevent sequelae.…”

“…Moreover, the ease of development of pharmaceutical forms using fucoidans means that they are good candidates for developing medicines [ 43 , 44 ]. Because conventional antivenoms have limitations [ 14 ], Fuly et al [ 26 ] developed a gel containing a galactan polysaccharide from the red alga Chrondus crispus that protected mice from hemorrhaging caused by the venom of B. jararaca and B. jararacussu when the gel was applied topically before or after the injection of venom. The literature also describes the use of an ointment or cream containing fucoidan from the brown algae F. vesiculosus and U. pinnatifida to treat inflammatory skin diseases, thrombosis, wounds, and burns [ 45 ].…”

“…In Brazil, the mono- or polyclonal antivenoms are produced at the Institute Butantan (São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil), Institute Vital Brazil (Niterói, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil), Immunological Production and Research Center (Piraquara, Paraná, Brazil), and Ezequiel Dias Foundation (Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil) through the hyperimmunization of equines, and the antivenoms are intravenously administered to patients after envenomation. Although antivenoms prevent the death of victims, they have some disadvantages, such as inducing allergic reactions (anaphylaxis) and fever and high costs of production, and they are ineffective in preventing tissue necrosis, thus leading to complications, such as amputation or deformity of the affected limb [ 13 , 14 ]. Furthermore, the delay in administering antivenoms may increase the mortality and morbidity of SBE [ 14 ].…”

“…Although antivenoms prevent the death of victims, they have some disadvantages, such as inducing allergic reactions (anaphylaxis) and fever and high costs of production, and they are ineffective in preventing tissue necrosis, thus leading to complications, such as amputation or deformity of the affected limb [ 13 , 14 ]. Furthermore, the delay in administering antivenoms may increase the mortality and morbidity of SBE [ 14 ]. Given the complexity of SBE and the limitations of antivenoms, seeking alternative or complementary treatments is of great importance.…”